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This study aimed to examine associations between temporal meal patterns and cardiovascular risk factors, and whether meal timing is associated with incident cardiovascular disease (CVD).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The study included 3812 participants (18\u201375 years) in the Malm\u00f6 Offspring Study who completed 4-day web-based dietary records and provided fasting blood samples. Cross-sectional analyses assessed associations between temporal meal patterns and risk factors, while a nested case\u2013control study evaluated associations with incident CVD.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Meal frequency was nonlinearly associated with HDL-cholesterol, with the highest HDL levels observed at 4.7 meals\/day. Each additional eating occasion was associated with 15% lower odds of metabolic syndrome (MS). Breakfast skipping was associated with higher total cholesterol (0.12 mmol\/L 95% CI: 0.04, 0.21) and, among men, higher LDL-cholesterol (0.15 mmol\/L 95% CI: 0.03, 0.26) but not with MS. Each additional hour of the eating window was associated with lower total and LDL-cholesterol (\u2212\u20090.03 mmol\/L 95% CI: \u2212 0.05, \u2212 0.01, and \u2212\u20090.04, \u2212 0.01) and a 7% (95% CI: 0.88, 0.98) reduction in odds of MS. A later first meal of the day, was associated with higher odds of MS (9% per hour, 95% CI: 1.01, 1.16). Prospectively, a later energy midpoint was associated with 31% higher odds of CVD (95% CI: 1.00, 1.74).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Starting to eat early in the day, regular breakfast consumption, an earlier energy midpoint, higher meal frequency, and a longer eating window may be associated with favourable cardiometabolic health.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-026-04118-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T12:48:36Z","timestamp":1790254116000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Associations between temporal meal patterns, cardiovascular risk factors and cardiovascular disease in Swedish adults: cross-sectional and nested case-control analyses"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"65","author":[{"given":"Jenny","family":"Schultz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lotta","family":"Moraeus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sophie","family":"Hellstrand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna Karin","family":"Lindroos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva","family":"Warensj\u00f6 Lemming","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"4118_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2022.11.001","volume":"80","author":"M Lindstrom","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lindstrom M, DeCleene N, Dorsey H, Fuster V, Johnson CO, LeGrand KE et al (2022) Global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risks collaboration, 1990\u20132021. 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