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Then, the cytotoxic profile of the particles was monitored in contact with murine L929 fibroblasts and TR146 keratinocytes for 1, 4, and 7 days. Further permeability assays were performed across a TR146 monolayer via Transwell<jats:sup>TM<\/jats:sup> model.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Physicochemical characterization of cpTi nano-scale particles (cpTi NPs) revealed a mean size at 70\u00a0nm and a specific surface area at around ~\u200917.2 m<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\/g, while micro-scale particles (cpTi MP) size ranged from 0.3 up to 5.3\u00a0\u03bcm with a mean size of 1.4\u00a0\u03bcm at dry conditions. The optimized de-agglomeration of nanoparticles resulted in an increased specific surface area up to 57.3 m<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\/g. The metabolic activity of fibroblasts decreased against 50 or 100\u00a0\u00b5g\/ml cpTi over 3 days cell culture while keratinocytes were not affected. Moreover, cpTi NP were internalized and steadily translocated into keratinocyte monolayers, showing an apparent permeability coefficient of 6.65\u2009\u00d7\u200910<jats:sup>\u22126<\/jats:sup> cm\/s for 50\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL and 3.96\u2009\u00d7\u200910<jats:sup>\u22126<\/jats:sup> cm\/s for 100\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Altogether, nano-scale titanium particles decreased the viability of fibroblasts although a significant viability of keratinocytes has been detected by standard cell culture assays. However, nano-scale titanium particles were found into keratinocytes and even trespassed the cells' layers that could reach other cells and blood vessels in an in vivo scenario. Thus, toxicity of titanium particles depends on their particle size, exposure time, content, and interaction with the surrounding media.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00784-025-06492-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T04:39:23Z","timestamp":1759207163000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Response of murine fibroblasts or human keratinocytes to micro- and nano-scale titanium particles: the permeability of particles across keratinocytes' monolayers"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"29","author":[{"given":"Catarina","family":"Pacheco","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Redouane","family":"Messous","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Rui P","family":"Moura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Andreia","family":"Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Patr\u00edcia","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Bruno","family":"Sarmento","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Hassan","family":"Bousbaa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"J\u00falio C. 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