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Looking at this mismatch of performance and confidence judgement\u2014the Dunning\u2013Kruger effect (DKE)\u2014the current study investigates how well students\u2019 confidence judgement and item-specific mathematics competence relate with each other and whether such a relationship differs across six European countries (i.e., Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Serbia and Portugal). We also examine whether perceived competence, mathematics identity, gender, socioeconomic status and immigration background predict this mismatch and whether these demographic factors function differently between the examined countries. The results show that the DKE could be found across grades three and four in all six countries. However, there are country-specific patterns regarding the relationship between performance, mathematics identity and perceived competence; the DKE; and how different demographic variables predict its occurrences in particular subpopulations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10212-024-00804-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]],"date-time":"2024-02-19T06:02:07Z","timestamp":1708322527000},"page":"1537-1559","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["When competence and confidence are at odds: a cross-country examination of the Dunning\u2013Kruger effect"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"39","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7071-2482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kajsa","family":"Yang Hansen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7751-3942","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cecilia","family":"Thorsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1427-6254","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jelena","family":"Radi\u0161i\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7193-2284","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco","family":"Peixoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3881-8134","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anu","family":"Laine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2314-9786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xin","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"804_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Andrade, H. 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