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However, estimating these parameters often involves time and resource-intensive techniques, which are logistically challenging or even unfeasible for rare and elusive species that occur patchily and in small numbers. Hence, surveys based on field identification of signs (e.g. faeces, footprints) have long been considered a cost-effective alternative in wildlife monitoring, provided they produce reliable detectability and meaningful indices of population abundance. We tested the use of sign surveys for monitoring rare and otherwise elusive small mammals, focusing on the Cabrera vole (<jats:italic>Microtus cabrerae<\/jats:italic>) in Portugal. We asked how sampling intensity affects true positive detection of the species, and whether sign abundance is related to population size. We surveyed Cabrera voles\u2019 latrines in 20 habitat patches known to be occupied, and estimated \u2018true\u2019 population size at each patch using DNA-based capture-recapture techniques. We found that a searching rate of ca. 3\u00a0min\/250m<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup> of habitat based on adaptive guided transects was sufficient to provide true positive detection probabilities\u2009&gt;\u20090.85. Sign-based abundance indices were at best moderately correlated with estimates of \u2018true\u2019 population size, and even so only for searching rates\u2009&gt;\u200912\u00a0min\/250m<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>. Our study suggests that surveys based on field identification of signs should provide a reliable option to estimate occupancy of Cabrera voles, and possibly for other rare or elusive small mammals, but cautions should be exercised when using this approach to infer population size. In case of practical constraints to the use of more accurate methods, a considerable sampling intensity is needed to reliably index Cabrera voles\u2019 abundance from sign surveys.\n<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10344-022-01634-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]],"date-time":"2022-12-23T09:02:31Z","timestamp":1671786151000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["From species detection to population size indexing: the use of sign surveys for monitoring a rare and otherwise elusive small mammal"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"69","author":[{"given":"Dinora","family":"Peralta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Teresa","family":"Vaz-Freire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Clara","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Tiago","family":"Mendes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Mira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Paulo C.","family":"Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Xavier","family":"Lambin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Pedro","family":"Beja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Joana","family":"Paup\u00e9rio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8562-7301","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Pita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"1634_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-0998.2010.02939.x","volume":"11","author":"S Alasaad","year":"2011","unstructured":"Alasaad S, Soriguer RC, Jowers MJ, Marchal JA, Romero I, S\u00e1nchez A (2011) Applicability of mitochondrial DNA for the identification of Arvicolid species from faecal samples: A case study from the threatened Cabrera\u2019s vole. 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