{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T01:09:49Z","timestamp":1776128989592,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,23]],"date-time":"2025-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737590400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,23]],"date-time":"2025-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737590400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005765","name":"Universidade de Lisboa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005765","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Water Resour Manage"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Water and sanitation affordability has emerged as a significant concern in recent years due to economic crises and the increasing reliance on tariffs to finance public services. Governments have often depended on inadequate affordability analyses, if any, to identify constraints faced by vulnerable families in accessing water supply and sanitation services. This paper proposes a comprehensive affordability analysis framework, considering six key dimensions: coverage rates, conventional affordability ratio, community poverty conditions, affordability ratio for poorer households, access to water social programs, and the burden of connection fees. The framework was applied to Brazil, focusing on its state-owned providers, which serve more than 70% of the population. The results demonstrate that the proposed framework offers a simple yet robust tool for decision-makers globally, with the flexibility to adapt to various contexts. The case study revealed that the Brazil\u2019s conventional affordability ratio masks affordability issues faced by poorer families, along with low access to social tariffs, high incidence of poverty, and low coverage in several areas. These findings provide critical insights for stakeholders, enabling the development of targeted public policies and the design of appropriate subsidy mechanisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-024-04076-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,23]],"date-time":"2025-01-23T12:07:39Z","timestamp":1737634059000},"page":"2527-2549","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["A Comprehensive Framework for Water Affordability Analysis"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"39","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4898-5254","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"T. S.","family":"Fagundes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"R. C.","family":"Marques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"T. F.","family":"Malheiros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"4076_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Alkire S, Nogales R, Quinn NN, Suppa N (2021) Global multidimensional poverty and COVID-19: a decade of progress at risk? Soc Sci Med 291. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.114457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.114457"},{"key":"4076_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1038\/s41545-024-00409-3","volume":"7","author":"MC Allaire","year":"2024","unstructured":"Allaire MC, Brusco B, Bakchan A et al (2024) Water and wastewater infrastructure inequity in unincorporated communities. NPJ Clean Water 7:125. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41545-024-00409-3","journal-title":"NPJ Clean Water"},{"key":"4076_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Andres L, Brocklehurst C, Grabinsky J et al (2020) Measuring the affordability of Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene services: a New Approach. Water Econ Policy 6. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1142\/S2382624X20500022","DOI":"10.1142\/S2382624X20500022"},{"key":"4076_CR4","unstructured":"Aqua Publica Europea (2016) Water affordability: public operators-views and approaches on tackling water poverty"},{"key":"4076_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banerjee SG, Morella E (2011) Africa\u2019s water and sanitation infrastructure access, affordability, and alternatives infrastructure","DOI":"10.1596\/978-0-8213-8457-2"},{"key":"4076_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wre.2014.05.003","volume":"6","author":"JA Barde","year":"2014","unstructured":"Barde JA, Lehmann P (2014) Distributional effects of water tariff reforms - an empirical study for Lima, Peru. Water Resour Econ 6:30\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.wre.2014.05.003","journal-title":"Water Resour Econ"},{"key":"4076_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Borja-Vega C, Morales EEG, Gonzalez JA (2019) Incidence of subsidies in residential public services in Mexico: the case of the water sector. Water (Switzerland) 11. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/w11102078","DOI":"10.3390\/w11102078"},{"key":"4076_CR8","unstructured":"BRASIL (2022) Diagn\u00f3stico Tem\u00e1tico Servi\u00e7os de \u00c1gua Esgoto. Available at: https:\/\/www.gov.br\/cidades\/pt-br\/acesso-a-informacao\/acoes-e-programas\/saneamento\/snis\/diagnosticos-anteriores-do-snis\/agua-e-esgotos-1\/2021"},{"key":"4076_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2018.04.011","volume":"109","author":"Z Burt","year":"2018","unstructured":"Burt Z, Erc\u00fcmen A, Billava N, Ray I (2018) From intermittent to continuous service: costs, benefits, equity and sustainability of water system reforms in Hubli-Dharwad, India. World Dev 109:121\u2013133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.worlddev.2018.04.011","journal-title":"World Dev"},{"key":"4076_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cardoso DS, Wichman CJ (2022) Water Affordability in the United States. Water Resour Res 58. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2022WR032206","DOI":"10.1029\/2022WR032206"},{"key":"4076_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2019.03.039","volume":"193","author":"R Casta\u00f1o-Rosa","year":"2019","unstructured":"Casta\u00f1o-Rosa R, Sol\u00eds-Guzm\u00e1n J, Rubio-Bellido C, Marrero M (2019) Towards a multiple-indicator approach to energy poverty in the European Union: a review. Energy Build 193:36\u201348. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.enbuild.2019.03.039","journal-title":"Energy Build"},{"key":"4076_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen S, Ravallion M (2008) The developing world is poorer than we thought. But no less successful in the fight against poverty","DOI":"10.1596\/1813-9450-4703"},{"key":"4076_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.2166\/aqua.2023.035","volume":"72","author":"TS Fagundes","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fagundes TS, Marques RC, Malheiros T (2023) Water affordability analysis: a critical literature review. AQUA \u2014 Water Infrastructure Ecosyst Soc 72:1431\u20131445. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2166\/aqua.2023.035","journal-title":"AQUA \u2014 Water Infrastructure Ecosyst Soc"},{"key":"4076_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.2166\/ws.2024.098","volume":"24","author":"TS Fagundes","year":"2024","unstructured":"Fagundes TS, Marques RC, Malheiros TF (2024) Impact of efficiency on affordability: a study of the Brazilian new water loss goals. Water Supply 24:1645\u20131657. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2166\/ws.2024.098","journal-title":"Water Supply"},{"key":"4076_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2006.02.003","volume":"35","author":"S Fankhauser","year":"2007","unstructured":"Fankhauser S, Tepic S (2007) Can poor consumers pay for energy and water? An affordability analysis for transition countries. Energy Policy 35:1038\u20131049. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.enpol.2006.02.003","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"4076_CR16","unstructured":"Feres JC, Villatoro P (2005) A Viabilidade de se Erradicar a Pobreza: uma An\u00e1lise Conceitual e Metodol\u00f3gica. Bras\u00edlia"},{"key":"4076_CR17","unstructured":"Galv\u00e3o J\u00fanior A, de Monteiro C, Costa MAP et al (2018) SAB, Tarifa Social nas Companhias Estaduais de Saneamento B\u00e1sico e o Papel da Regula\u00e7\u00e3o"},{"key":"4076_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2010.07.029","volume":"91","author":"MA Garc\u00eda-Vali\u00f1as","year":"2010","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Vali\u00f1as MA, Mart\u00ednez-Espi\u00f1eira R, Gonz\u00e1lez-G\u00f3mez F (2010a) Affordability of residential water tariffs: alternative measurement and explanatory factors in southern Spain. J Environ Manage 91:2696\u20132706. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jenvman.2010.07.029","journal-title":"J Environ Manage"},{"key":"4076_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1080\/07900627.2010.491971","volume":"26","author":"MDL\u00c1 Garc\u00eda-Vali\u00f1as","year":"2010","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Vali\u00f1as MA, Mart\u00ednez-Espi\u00f1eira R, Gonz\u00e1lez-G\u00f3mez F (2010b) Measuring water affordability: a proposal for urban centres in developed countries. Int J Water Resour Dev 26:441\u2013458. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/07900627.2010.491971","journal-title":"Int J Water Resour Dev"},{"key":"4076_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.2166\/wp.2012.192","volume":"15","author":"E Gawel","year":"2013","unstructured":"Gawel E, Sigel K, Bretschneider W (2013) Affordability of water supply in Mongolia: empirical lessons for measuring affordability. Water Policy 15:19\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2166\/wp.2012.192","journal-title":"Water Policy"},{"key":"4076_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Goddard JJ, Ray I, Balazs C (2021) Water affordability and human right to water implications in California. PLoS ONE 16. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0245237","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0245237"},{"key":"4076_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Grafton RQ, Manero A, Chu L, Wyrwoll P (2023) The price and value of water: an economic review. Cambridge Prisms. Water 1\u201339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/wat.2023.2","DOI":"10.1017\/wat.2023.2"},{"key":"4076_CR23","unstructured":"Heller L (2015) Affordability and the human rights to water and sanitation. A report by the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to water and sanitation. Human Rights Council. A\/HRC\/30\/39"},{"key":"4076_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hoque SF, Hope R (2020) Examining the economics of affordability through water diaries in coastal Bangladesh. Water Econ Policy 6. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1142\/S2382624X19500115","DOI":"10.1142\/S2382624X19500115"},{"key":"4076_CR25","unstructured":"Howard G, Bartram J, Williams A et al (2020) Domestic water quantity, service level and health Second edition. Geneva"},{"key":"4076_CR26","unstructured":"Hutton G (2012) Monitoring affordability of water and sanitation services after 2015. Review of global indicator options"},{"key":"4076_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hutton G, Varughese M (2016) The costs of meeting the 2030 sustainable development goal targets on drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene","DOI":"10.1596\/K8543"},{"key":"4076_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E290","DOI":"10.5942\/jawwa.2016.108.0047","volume":"108","author":"A Janzen","year":"2016","unstructured":"Janzen A, Achari G, Dore MHI, Langford CH (2016) Cost recovery and affordability in small drinking water treatment plants in Alberta, Canada. J Am Water Works Assoc 108:E290\u2013E298. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5942\/jawwa.2016.108.0047","journal-title":"J Am Water Works Assoc"},{"key":"4076_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Espi\u00f1eira R, P\u00e9rez-Urdiales M (2025) Water affordability challenges in Latin America and the Caribbean: accounting for coping costs due to reliance on multiple, non-exclusive sources. World Dev 186. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.worlddev.2024.106825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2024.106825"},{"key":"4076_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jup.2016.04.012","volume":"43","author":"R Martins","year":"2016","unstructured":"Martins R, Quintal C, Cruz L, Barata E (2016) Water affordability issues in developed countries \u2013 the relevance of micro approaches. Util Policy 43:117\u2013123. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jup.2016.04.012","journal-title":"Util Policy"},{"key":"4076_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jup.2018.12.002","volume":"56","author":"R Martins","year":"2019","unstructured":"Martins R, Quintal C, Antunes M (2019) Making ends meet: actual versus potential joint affordability of utility services. Util Policy 56:120\u2013126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jup.2018.12.002","journal-title":"Util Policy"},{"key":"4076_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Narzetti DA, Marques RC (2021) Isomorphic mimicry and the effectiveness of water-sector reforms in Brazil. Util Policy 70. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jup.2021.101217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jup.2021.101217"},{"key":"4076_CR33","first-page":"359","volume-title":"Global Issues in Water Policy","author":"C Nauges","year":"2015","unstructured":"Nauges C, Whittington D, El-Alfy M (2015) A Simulation Model for understanding the consequences of Alternative Water and Wastewater Tariff structures: a case study of Fayoum, Egypt. Global issues in Water Policy. Springer, pp 359\u2013381"},{"key":"4076_CR34","unstructured":"OEA (2022) Comp\u00eandio sobre Experi\u00eancias e Li\u00e7\u00f5es Aprendidas na Medi\u00e7\u00e3o da Pobreza Multidimensional nas Am\u00e9ricas. Washington, D.C"},{"key":"4076_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1787\/9789264060548-en","volume-title":"Managing water for all : an OECD perspective on pricing and financing","author":"OECD","year":"2009","unstructured":"OECD (2009) Managing water for all : an OECD perspective on pricing and financing. OECD"},{"key":"4076_CR36","unstructured":"OECD (2020) Addressing the social consequences of tariffs for water supply and sanitation. Paris, France"},{"key":"4076_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Pattanayak SK, Yang JC, Whittington D, Bal Kumar KC (2005) Coping with\u00a0unreliable public water supplies: averting expenditures by households in Kathmandu, Nepal. Water Resour Res 41:(2).\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2003WR002443","DOI":"10.1029\/2003WR002443"},{"key":"4076_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.2166\/wp.2015.188","volume":"17","author":"FS Pinto","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pinto FS, Marques RC (2015) Tariff structures for water and sanitation urban households: a primer. Water Policy 17:1108\u20131126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2166\/wp.2015.188","journal-title":"Water Policy"},{"key":"4076_CR39","unstructured":"Rademaekers K, Yearwood J, Ferreira A et al (2016) Selecting indicators to measure energy poverty"},{"key":"4076_CR40","unstructured":"Raucher R, Clements J, Rothstein E, Mastracchio J (2019) Developing a new framework for household affordability and financial capability assessment in the water sector"},{"key":"4076_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wre.2016.04.001","volume":"14","author":"A Reynaud","year":"2016","unstructured":"Reynaud A (2016) Assessing the impact of full cost recovery of water services on European households. Water Resour Econ 14:65\u201378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.wre.2016.04.001","journal-title":"Water Resour Econ"},{"key":"4076_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.2166\/wp.2014.142","volume":"17","author":"M Sebri","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sebri M (2015) Water affordability and social equity in Tunisian governorates: a distributive approach. Water Policy 17:26\u201345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2166\/wp.2014.142","journal-title":"Water Policy"},{"key":"4076_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1177\/26349825231156900","volume":"2","author":"SH Shah","year":"2023","unstructured":"Shah SH, Harris LM, Menghwani V et al (2023) Variations in household water affordability and water insecurity: an intersectional perspective from 18 low- and middle-income countries. Environ Plann F 2:369\u2013398. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/26349825231156900","journal-title":"Environ Plann F"},{"key":"4076_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Teodoro MP (2018) Measuring household affordability for water and sewer utilities. J Am Water Works Assoc 110:13\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5942\/jawwa.2018.110.0002","DOI":"10.5942\/jawwa.2018.110.0002"},{"key":"4076_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2018.03.106","volume":"217","author":"J Vanhille","year":"2018","unstructured":"Vanhille J, Goedem\u00e9 T, Penne T et al (2018) Measuring water affordability in developed economies. The added value of a needs-based approach. J Environ Manage 217:611\u2013620. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jenvman.2018.03.106","journal-title":"J Environ Manage"},{"key":"4076_CR46","unstructured":"Waddams C, Deller D (2015) Affordability of utilities\u2019 services: extent, practice, policy. Brussels"},{"key":"4076_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Whittington D, Cook J (2019) Valuing changes in Time Use in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. J Benefit Cost Anal 51\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/bca.2018.21","DOI":"10.1017\/bca.2018.21"},{"key":"4076_CR48","unstructured":"WHO, UNICEF (2021) The measurement and monitoring of water supply. Sanitation and hygiene (WASH) affordability"}],"container-title":["Water Resources Management"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11269-024-04076-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11269-024-04076-4\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11269-024-04076-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]],"date-time":"2025-04-30T05:43:04Z","timestamp":1745991784000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11269-024-04076-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,23]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["4076"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11269-024-04076-4","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-4306196\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["0920-4741","1573-1650"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0920-4741","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-1650","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"22 April 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 December 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 January 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}},{"value":"This article contains no studies with human participants nor animals.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical Approval"}},{"value":"All authors consented to participate.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to Participate"}},{"value":"All authors read and approved the final manuscript. All authors consent to publish the present study.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to Publish"}}]}}