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Accordingly, the present work aimed to assess the ecotoxicity of CAP and 5-FU in three freshwater species, which included a 72-h assay with the producer<jats:italic>Raphidocelis subcapitata<\/jats:italic>; a 96-h assay with the invertebrate secondary consumer<jats:italic>Hydra viridissima<\/jats:italic>; and a 96-h assay with embryos of the vertebrate secondary consumer<jats:italic>Danio rerio<\/jats:italic>. The following endpoints were monitored: yield and population growth rate for the algae; mortality, morphological alterations, and post-exposure feeding rates for the cnidarian; and mortality, hatching, and malformations for the fish. Overall, organisms\u2019 sensitivity to CAP decreased in the following order:<jats:italic>R. subcapitata<\/jats:italic>\u2009&gt;\u2009<jats:italic>H. viridissima<\/jats:italic>\u2009&gt;\u2009<jats:italic>D. rerio<\/jats:italic>, whereas for 5-FU, it decreased in the following order:<jats:italic>H. viridissima<\/jats:italic>\u2009&gt;\u2009<jats:italic>D. rerio<\/jats:italic>\u2009&gt;\u2009<jats:italic>R. subcapitata<\/jats:italic>. For CAP, no median lethal effective concentrations (LC\/EC<jats:sub>50<\/jats:sub>) were possible to compute for<jats:italic>D. rerio<\/jats:italic>, with no significant mortality or malformations registered in embryos exposed at concentrations up to 800\u00a0mg L<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>. For<jats:italic>R. subcapitata<\/jats:italic>, the EC<jats:sub>50<\/jats:sub>s were 0.077 and 0.63\u00a0mg L<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>for yield and growth rate, respectively, and for<jats:italic>H. viridissima<\/jats:italic>, the EC<jats:sub>50,30\u00a0min<\/jats:sub>for feeding was 22.0\u00a0mg L<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>. For 5-FU, no EC<jats:sub>50s<\/jats:sub>could be computed for<jats:italic>R. subcapitata<\/jats:italic>, whilst the EC<jats:sub>50s<\/jats:sub>for<jats:italic>H. viridissima<\/jats:italic>mortality and feeding were 55.4 and 67.9\u00a0mg L<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>, respectively, and for<jats:italic>D. rerio<\/jats:italic>, the LC<jats:sub>50,96\u00a0h<\/jats:sub>and EC<jats:sub>50,96\u00a0h<\/jats:sub>(hatching and abnormalities) were 4546, 4100, and 2459\u00a0mg L<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>, respectively. Assuming similar modes of action for both compounds and their co-occurrence, the combined risk quotient of the two chemicals was determined to be 7.97, which represents a risk for freshwater biota. Anticipating the increased consumption of these compounds and cancer development trends worldwide, these impacts may be further aggravated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-26505-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,4]],"date-time":"2023-04-04T11:23:14Z","timestamp":1680607394000},"page":"58841-58854","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Assessing the risks of capecitabine and its active metabolite 5-fluorouracil to freshwater biota"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"30","author":[{"given":"C\u00e1tia","family":"Ven\u00e2ncio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Bruna","family":"Monteiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9325-0329","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isabel","family":"Lopes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ana C. 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