{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T07:41:53Z","timestamp":1782546113011,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Elsevier","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780123876911","type":"print"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2011]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/b978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,7,23]],"date-time":"2011-07-23T00:39:54Z","timestamp":1311381594000},"page":"37-76","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1507,"title":["Cognitive Load Theory"],"prefix":"10.1016","author":[{"given":"John","family":"Sweller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0005","series-title":"Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning","first-page":"135","article-title":"The split-attention principle","author":"Ayres","year":"2005"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0010","series-title":"Human memory","author":"Baddeley","year":"1999"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0015","series-title":"Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory","author":"Bandura","year":"1986"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1207\/s1532690xci0804_2","article-title":"Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction","volume":"8","author":"Chandler","year":"1991","journal-title":"Cognition and Instruction"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(73)90004-2","article-title":"Perception in chess","volume":"4","author":"Chase","year":"1973","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0030","series-title":"Advances in the psychology of human intelligence","first-page":"7","article-title":"Expertise in problem solving","author":"Chi","year":"1982"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(79)90146-4","article-title":"Acquisition of domain-related information in relation to high and low domain knowledge","volume":"18","author":"Chiesi","year":"1979","journal-title":"Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-898X.7.1.68","article-title":"Learning by imagining","volume":"7","author":"Cooper","year":"2001","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X01003922","article-title":"The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity","volume":"24","author":"Cowan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Behavioral and Brain Sciences"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0050","series-title":"Thought and choice in chess","author":"De Groot","year":"1965"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03197595","article-title":"Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings","volume":"7","author":"Egan","year":"1979","journal-title":"Memory & Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.49.8.725","article-title":"Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition","volume":"49","author":"Ericsson","year":"1994","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.102.2.211","article-title":"Long-term working memory","volume":"102","author":"Ericsson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0070","series-title":"Psychological perspectives on contemporary educational issues","first-page":"1","article-title":"Educating the evolved mind: Conceptual foundations for an evolutionary educational psychology","author":"Geary","year":"2007"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520802392133","article-title":"An evolutionarily informed education science","volume":"43","author":"Geary","year":"2008","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2005.07.001","article-title":"Meta-analysis of the modality effect","volume":"15","author":"Ginns","year":"2005","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0085","series-title":"Epigenetic inheritance and evolution","author":"Jablonka","year":"1995"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0090","series-title":"Evolution in four dimensions: genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and symbolic variation in the history of life","author":"Jablonka","year":"2005"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0095","series-title":"Cognitive skills and their acquisition","first-page":"255","article-title":"Processes involved in designing software","author":"Jeffries","year":"1981"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326985EP3801_4","article-title":"The expertise reversal effect","volume":"38","author":"Kalyuga","year":"2003","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1518\/001872098779480587","article-title":"Levels of expertise and instructional design","volume":"40","author":"Kalyuga","year":"1998","journal-title":"Human Factors"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.92.1.126","article-title":"Incorporating learner experience into the design of multimedia instruction","volume":"92","author":"Kalyuga","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1518\/hfes.46.3.567.50405","article-title":"When redundant on-screen text in multimedia technical instruction can interfere with learning","volume":"46","author":"Kalyuga","year":"2004","journal-title":"Human Factors"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.93.3.579","article-title":"When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples","volume":"93","author":"Kalyuga","year":"2001","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326985ep4102_1","article-title":"Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential and inquiry-based teaching","volume":"41","author":"Kirschner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0956-7976.2004.00737.x","article-title":"The equivalence of learning paths in early science instruction: Effects of direct instruction and discovery learning","volume":"15","author":"Klahr","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(85)90009-X","article-title":"Why are some problems hard? Evidence from Tower of Hanoi","volume":"17","author":"Kotovsky","year":"1985","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-898X.11.4.266","article-title":"Interactions among the imagination, expertise reversal, and element interactivity effects","volume":"11","author":"Leahy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.1373","article-title":"The imagination effect increases with an increased intrinsic cognitive load","volume":"22","author":"Leahy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Applied Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0150","unstructured":"Leahy, W., & Sweller, J. (in press). Cognitive load theory, modality of presentation and the transient information effect. Applied Cognitive Psychology."},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/h0093502","article-title":"Mechanisation in problem solving: The effect of Einstellung","volume":"54","author":"Luchins","year":"1942","journal-title":"Psychological Monographs"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1037\/h0043158","article-title":"The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information","volume":"63","author":"Miller","year":"1956","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.87.2.319","article-title":"Reducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and visual presentation modes","volume":"87","author":"Mousavi","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.84.4.429","article-title":"Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive-load approach","volume":"84","author":"Paas","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.86.1.122","article-title":"Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach","volume":"86","author":"Paas","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03202613","article-title":"Modality effects and the structure of short-term verbal memory","volume":"17","author":"Penney","year":"1989","journal-title":"Memory & Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1037\/h0049234","article-title":"Short-term retention of individual verbal items","volume":"58","author":"Peterson","year":"1959","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-4752(01)00016-0","article-title":"Assimilating complex information","volume":"12","author":"Pollock","year":"2002","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1076\/jmep.27.3.257.2980","article-title":"Historical development of the concept of the gene","volume":"27","author":"Portin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Medicine and Philosophy"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0200","series-title":"The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning","first-page":"229","article-title":"The worked out example principle in multimedia learning","author":"Renkl","year":"2005"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2008.03.006","article-title":"The worked-example effect using ill-defined problems: Learning to recognise designers\u2019 styles","volume":"19","author":"Rourke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/s11251-009-9107-8","article-title":"The expertise reversal effect and worked examples in tutored problem solving","volume":"38","author":"Salden","year":"2010","journal-title":"Instructional Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.84.1.1","article-title":"Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention","volume":"84","author":"Schneider","year":"1977","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.84.2.127","article-title":"Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory","volume":"84","author":"Shiffrin","year":"1977","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(73)90024-8","article-title":"A simulation of memory for chess positions","volume":"5","author":"Simon","year":"1973","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1080\/03919710412331341621","article-title":"Genes: Philosophical analyses put to the test","volume":"26","author":"Stotz","year":"2004","journal-title":"History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog1202_4","article-title":"Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning","volume":"12","author":"Sweller","year":"1988","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0240","first-page":"215","article-title":"Evolution of human cognitive architecture","volume":"Vol. 43","author":"Sweller","year":"2003"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0245","series-title":"Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning","first-page":"159","article-title":"The redundancy principle","author":"Sweller","year":"2005"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-008-9091-6","article-title":"Cognitive bases of human creativity","volume":"21","author":"Sweller","year":"2009","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0255","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-010-9128-5","article-title":"Element interactivity and intrinsic, extraneous and germane cognitive load","volume":"22","author":"Sweller","year":"2010","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0260","series-title":"Cognitive load theory","author":"Sweller","year":"2011"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1207\/s1532690xci1203_1","article-title":"Why some material is difficult to learn","volume":"12","author":"Sweller","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cognition and Instruction"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.119.2.176","article-title":"Cognitive load as a factor in the structuring of technical material","volume":"119","author":"Sweller","year":"1990","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1207\/s1532690xci0201_3","article-title":"The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra","volume":"2","author":"Sweller","year":"1985","journal-title":"Cognition and Instruction"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0280","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.4.5.513","article-title":"Einstellung, the sequence effect, and hypothesis theory","volume":"4","author":"Sweller","year":"1978","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0285","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.112.4.639","article-title":"Development of expertise in mathematical problem solving","volume":"112","author":"Sweller","year":"1983","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1177\/147470490600400135","article-title":"Natural information processing systems","volume":"4","author":"Sweller","year":"2006","journal-title":"Evolutionary Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0295","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1348\/000709904322848824","article-title":"Multimedia instructions and cognitive load theory: Effects of modality and cueing","volume":"74","author":"Tabbers","year":"2004","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0300","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.80.4.424","article-title":"Guidance during mathematical problem solving","volume":"80","author":"Tarmizi","year":"1988","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0305","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-898X.3.4.257","article-title":"When two sensory modes are better than one","volume":"3","author":"Tindall-Ford","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0310","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.2190\/4NK5-17L7-TWQV-1EHL","article-title":"Strategies for programming instruction in high school: Program completion vs. program generation","volume":"6","author":"van Merrienboer","year":"1990","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0315","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1207\/s1532690xci0701_1","article-title":"Structuring effective worked examples","volume":"7","author":"Ward","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cognition and Instruction"},{"key":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8_bib0320","series-title":"Developmental plasticity and evolution","author":"West-Eberhard","year":"2003"}],"container-title":["Psychology of Learning and Motivation"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,1]],"date-time":"2018-12-01T11:59:28Z","timestamp":1543665568000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/B9780123876911000028"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011]]},"ISBN":["9780123876911"],"references-count":64,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/b978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["0079-7421"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0079-7421","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011]]}}}