{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T16:01:07Z","timestamp":1780761667777,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Ad Hoc Networks"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,26]],"date-time":"2026-05-26T07:37:54Z","timestamp":1779781074000},"page":"104308","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Energy-efficient optimization in multi-gateway LoRa networks via Q-learning with spatial-interference awareness"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"191","author":[{"given":"Huapeng","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Da","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhangqin","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b1","series-title":"Number of Internet of Things (IoT) connections worldwide from 2022 to 2023, with forecasts from 2024 to 2034, may","author":"Vailshery","year":"2025"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2023.3274934","article-title":"A survey on scalable LoRaWAN for massive IoT: Recent advances, potentials, and challenges","volume":"25","author":"Jouhari","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1109\/LSP.2017.2762960","article-title":"Frequency shift chirp modulation: The LoRa modulation","volume":"24","author":"Vangelista","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Lett."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3664","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3230505","article-title":"A survey on LoRa for smart agriculture: Current trends and future perspectives","volume":"10","author":"Pagano","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2019.105169","article-title":"Novel soil environment monitoring system based on RFID sensor and LoRa","volume":"169","author":"Deng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agr."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2020.2984549","article-title":"Energy-efficient LoRaWAN for industry 4.0 applications","volume":"17","author":"Sherazi","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b7","series-title":"Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Commun.","first-page":"1","article-title":"Simulating LoRaWAN: On importance of inter spreading factor interference and collision effect","author":"Markkula","year":"2019"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3544","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2020.2977046","article-title":"LoRa beyond ALOHA: An investigation of alternative random access protocols","volume":"17","author":"Beltramelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Informat."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2016.2647247","article-title":"Low power wide area network analysis: Can LoRa scale?","volume":"6","author":"Georgiou","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2020.3038638","article-title":"Capture aware sequential waterfilling for LoRaWAN adaptive data rate","volume":"20","author":"Garlisi","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10501","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2023.3240696","article-title":"LoRa performance in industrial environments: analysis of different ADR algorithms","volume":"19","author":"Soto-Vergel","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Informat."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4960","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2020.2993085","article-title":"Energy efficient uplink transmissions in LoRa networks","volume":"68","author":"Su","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2538","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2021.3106649","article-title":"A novel deep learning-based IoT device transmission interval management scheme for enhanced scalability in LoRa networks","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"issue":"21","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34420","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2024.3443857","article-title":"Dynamic parameter selection of LoRa edge nodes using reinforcement learning with link prior knowledge","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b15","series-title":"LoRaWAN 1.1 specification","author":"LoRa Alliance","year":"2017"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2018.2864681","article-title":"Scalability analysis of a LoRa network under imperfect orthogonality","volume":"15","author":"Mahmood","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Informat."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b17","series-title":"Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Wirel. Mobile Comput. Netw. Commun. (WiMob)","first-page":"1","article-title":"EXPLoRa: Extending the performance of LoRa by suitable spreading factor allocations","author":"Cuomo","year":"2017"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2670","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3020189","article-title":"A novel collision-aware adaptive data rate algorithm for LoRaWAN networks","volume":"8","author":"Marini","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6709","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2020.3042833","article-title":"Scalability analysis of LoRa network for SNR-based SF allocation scheme","volume":"17","author":"Saluja","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Informat."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2024.3450586","article-title":"SF-adaptive duty-cycled LoRa networks: scalability, reliability, and latency tradeoffs","volume":"73","author":"Bouazizi","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b21","series-title":"Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Electron. Inf. Commun.","first-page":"1","article-title":"Interference-aware spreading factor assignment scheme for the massive LoRaWAN network","author":"Farhad","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b22","series-title":"Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Commun.","first-page":"1","article-title":"Resource management in energy harvesting powered LoRa wireless networks","author":"Hamdi","year":"2021"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3750","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2020.2974722","article-title":"Joint allocation strategies of power and spreading factors with imperfect orthogonality in LoRa networks","volume":"68","author":"Amichi","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1638","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2022.3146289","article-title":"Performance analysis and resource allocation for a relaying LoRa system considering random nodal distances","volume":"70","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4935","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2895417","article-title":"Resource allocation in wireless powered IoT networks","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11640","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2023.3248074","article-title":"AI-ERA: Artificial intelligence-empowered resource allocation for LoRa-enabled IoT applications","volume":"19","author":"Farhad","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Informat."},{"issue":"22","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46596","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2025.3606698","article-title":"A topology-aware GNN learning approach for energy optimization in multihop LoRa networks","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b28","series-title":"Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Mobile Ad-Hoc Smart Syst.","first-page":"295","article-title":"FedLoRa: IoT spectrum sensing through fast and energy-efficient federated learning in LoRa networks","author":"Busacca","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H. Yang, H. Ji, Z. Huang, X. Wu, A GNN-Based Learning Approach for Energy Optimization in Relay-Assisted IoT Networks, in: Proc. IEEE Wirel. Commun. Netw. Conf., WCNC, 2025, pp. 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC61545.2025.10978775"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2019.2927759","article-title":"Optimizing and updating LoRa communication parameters: A machine learning approach","volume":"16","author":"Sandoval","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Serv. Manag."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b31","series-title":"Proc. IEEE Wirel. Commun. Netw. Conf.","first-page":"1455","article-title":"Channel-occupation-aware resource allocation in LoRa networks: a DQN-and-optimization-aided approach","author":"Qin","year":"2022"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6458","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2021.3110996","article-title":"LoRa-RL: Deep reinforcement learning for resource management in hybrid energy LoRa wireless networks","volume":"9","author":"Hamdi","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A. Scarvaglieri, S. Palazzo, F. Busacca, A lightweight, fully-distributed AI framework for energy-efficient resource allocation in LoRa networks, in: Proc. IEEE\/ACM Int. Conf. Utility Cloud Comput., 2023, pp. 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1145\/3603166.3632564"},{"issue":"20","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18259","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3279429","article-title":"Reinforcement learning approach for SF allocation in LoRa network","volume":"10","author":"Hong","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b35","series-title":"Proc. IEEE Global Commun. Conf.","first-page":"1","article-title":"Reinforcement learning for hybrid energy LoRa wireless networks","author":"Hamdi","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b36","series-title":"Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice","author":"Rappaport","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b37","series-title":"Proc. IEEE Conf. Comput. Commun.","first-page":"1","article-title":"Modeling communication reliability in LoRa networks with device-level accuracy","author":"Toro-Betancur","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M.C. Bor, U. Roedig, T. Voigt, J.M. Alonso, Do LoRa low-power wide-area networks scale?, in: Proc. 19th ACM Int. Conf. Model. Anal. Simulat. Wireless Mobile Syst., 2016, pp. 59\u201367.","DOI":"10.1145\/2988287.2989163"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b39","series-title":"Proc. 22th European Wirel. Conf.","first-page":"1","article-title":"Analysis of capacity and scalability of the LoRa low power wide area network technology","author":"Mikhaylov","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b40","series-title":"Introduction to Probability","author":"Grinstead","year":"2012"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b41","first-page":"5597","article-title":"Towards energy-fairness in LoRa networks","volume":"22","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b42","series-title":"Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Commun.","first-page":"5228","article-title":"FULMINA: A fast multi-armed bandit approach for optimal SF allocation in LoRa IoT networks","author":"Scarvaglieri","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308_b43","series-title":"Proc. 45th IEEE Conf. Local Computer Networks","first-page":"457","article-title":"LoRaDRL: Deep reinforcement learning based adaptive PHY layer transmission parameters selection for LoRaWAN","author":"Ilahi","year":"2020"}],"container-title":["Ad Hoc Networks"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1570870526001745?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1570870526001745?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T15:39:57Z","timestamp":1780760397000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1570870526001745"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"references-count":43,"alternative-id":["S1570870526001745"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308","relation":{},"ISSN":["1570-8705"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1570-8705","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Energy-efficient optimization in multi-gateway LoRa networks via Q-learning with spatial-interference awareness","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Ad Hoc Networks","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.adhoc.2026.104308","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Published by Elsevier B.V.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"104308"}}