{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T16:09:59Z","timestamp":1780416599510,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023YFB3106700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFB3106700"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62302097"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62302097"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004608","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SBK2023041256"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SBK2023041256"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004608","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Computer Networks"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T17:24:58Z","timestamp":1774373098000},"page":"112252","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Beyond flat identification: Exploiting site-page structure for hierarchical webpage fingerprinting"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"282","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9258-9929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yali","family":"Yuan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-8084-9692","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhe","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1767-9926","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xingjian","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8642-4362","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guang","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0001","series-title":"USENIX Security Symposium","first-page":"303","article-title":"Tor: the second-generation onion router","volume":"13","author":"Dingledine","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0002","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2018 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS)","first-page":"1928","article-title":"Deep fingerprinting: undermining website fingerprinting defenses with deep learning","author":"Sirinam","year":"2018"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0003","series-title":"2023 USENIX Security Symposium","first-page":"607","article-title":"Subverting website fingerprinting defenses with robust traffic representation","author":"Shen","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0004","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 on ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS)","first-page":"1997","article-title":"Robust and reliable early-Stage website fingerprinting attacks via spatial-Temporal distribution analysis","author":"Deng","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2023.103577","article-title":"A comprehensive analysis of website fingerprinting defenses on tor","volume":"136","author":"Xiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Security"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0006","series-title":"2019 IEEE International Conference on Communications","first-page":"1","article-title":"Webpage fingerprinting using only packet length information","author":"Shen","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2046","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2020.3046876","article-title":"Fine-grained webpage fingerprinting using only packet length information of encrypted traffic","volume":"16","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forens. Secur. (TIFS)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0008","series-title":"2020 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)","first-page":"152","article-title":"High precision open-World website fingerprinting","author":"Wang","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0009","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 on ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS)","first-page":"423","article-title":"Towards fine-Grained webpage fingerprinting at scale","author":"Zhao","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2025.104643","article-title":"Attack smarter: attention-driven fine-Grained webpage fingerprinting attacks","volume":"158","author":"Yuan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0011","unstructured":"T. Pulls, Towards Effective and Efficient Padding Machines for Tor, 2020, 2011.13471."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0012","series-title":"2024 USENIX Security Symposium","first-page":"4139","article-title":"Stop, don\u2019t click here anymore: boosting website fingerprinting by considering sets of subpages","author":"Mitseva","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0013","series-title":"Proceedings of 2018 Network and Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS)","article-title":"Automated website fingerprinting through deep learning","author":"Rimmer","year":"2018"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0014","first-page":"292","article-title":"Var-CNN: a data-Efficient website fingerprinting attack based on deep learning","volume":"2019","author":"Bhat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proceed. Privacy Enhanc. Technol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0015","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2019 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS)","first-page":"1131","article-title":"Triplet fingerprinting: more practical and portable website fingerprinting with N-shot learning","author":"Sirinam","year":"2019"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0016","first-page":"5","article-title":"Tik-Tok: The utility of packet timing in website fingerprinting attacks","volume":"2020","author":"Rahman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proceed. Privacy Enhanc. Technol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0017","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2023 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS)","first-page":"1035","article-title":"Realistic website fingerprinting by augmenting network traces","author":"Bahramali","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0018","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2023 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS)","first-page":"1050","article-title":"Transformer-Based model for multi-tab website fingerprinting attack","author":"Jin","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0019","series-title":"2023 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)","first-page":"1005","article-title":"Robust multi-tab website fingerprinting attacks in the wild","author":"Deng","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0020","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 ACM Web Conference (WWW)","first-page":"1203","article-title":"Contrastive fingerprinting: a novel website fingerprinting attack over few-shot traces","author":"Xie","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6340","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2025.3581092","article-title":"WF-TFC: An open-World few-Shot anonymous website fingerprinting via time-Frequency consistency","volume":"20","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forens. Secur. (TIFS)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0022","series-title":"2025 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)","first-page":"1419","article-title":"Countmamba: a generalized website fingerprinting attack via coarse-Grained representation and fine-Grained prediction","author":"Deng","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0023","series-title":"2014 USENIX Security Symposium","first-page":"143","article-title":"Effective attacks and provable defenses for website fingerprinting","author":"Wang","year":"2014"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0024","series-title":"Proceedings of 2016 Network and Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS)","first-page":"23477","article-title":"Website fingerprinting at internet scale","volume":"1","author":"Panchenko","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0025","series-title":"2021 IEEE\/ACM 29Th International Symposium on Quality of Service","first-page":"1","article-title":"Efficient fine-Grained website fingerprinting via encrypted traffic analysis with deep learning","author":"Shen","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0026","series-title":"2021 International Joint Conference on Neural Networks","first-page":"1","article-title":"GAP-WF: Graph attention pooling network for fine-grained SSL\/TLS website fingerprinting","author":"Lu","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0027","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)","first-page":"815","article-title":"Facenet: a unified embedding for face recognition and clustering","author":"Schroff","year":"2015"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0028","series-title":"Proceedings of the 37Th International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML)","first-page":"1597","article-title":"A simple framework for contrastive learning of visual representations","author":"Chen","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0029","series-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS)","first-page":"18661","article-title":"Supervised contrastive learning","volume":"33","author":"Khosla","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0030","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV)","first-page":"360","article-title":"No fuss distance metric learning using proxies","author":"Movshovitz-Attias","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0031","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)","first-page":"7087","article-title":"PCL: Proxy-based contrastive learning for domain generalization","author":"Yao","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0032","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)","first-page":"11471","article-title":"Your \u201cflamingo\u201d is my \u201cbird\u201d: fine-Grained, or not","author":"Chang","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0033","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)","first-page":"4858","article-title":"Label relation graphs enhanced hierarchical residual network for hierarchical multi-Granularity classification","author":"Chen","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0034","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)","first-page":"16660","article-title":"Use all the labels: a hierarchical multi-Label contrastive learning framework","author":"Zhang","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9285","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2024.3468171","article-title":"Laserbeak: evolving website fingerprinting attacks with attention and multi-Channel feature representation","volume":"19","author":"Mathews","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forens. Secur. (TIFS)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2024.110217","article-title":"HSWF: Enhancing website fingerprinting attacks on tor to address real world distribution mismatch","volume":"241","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2023.109780","article-title":"Few-Shot website fingerprinting attack with cluster adaptation","volume":"229","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0038","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Web Conference (WWW)","first-page":"1068","article-title":"Beyond single tabs: a transformative few-Shot approach to multi-Tab website fingerprinting attacks","author":"Meng","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0039","series-title":"2024 Second International Conference Computational and Characterization Techniques in Engineering & Sciences (IC3TES)","first-page":"1","article-title":"Automated machine learning to streamline data-Driven industrial application development","author":"Addula","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0040","unstructured":"G. Acar, M. Juarez, i. contributors, tor-browser-selenium - Tor Browser automation with Selenium, 2023, (https:\/\/github.com\/webfp\/tor-browser-selenium)."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0041","series-title":"Computer Security \u2013 ESORICS 2016","first-page":"27","article-title":"Toward an efficient website fingerprinting defense","author":"Juarez","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0042","series-title":"2020 USENIX Security Symposium","first-page":"717","article-title":"Zero-Delay lightweight defenses against website fingerprinting","author":"Gong","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0043","unstructured":"J.K. Holland, N. Hopper, RegulaTor: A Straightforward Website Fingerprinting Defense, 2021, 2012.06609."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252_bib0044","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2020 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS)","first-page":"1971","article-title":"Trafficsliver: fighting website fingerprinting attacks with traffic splitting","author":"De la Cadena","year":"2020"}],"container-title":["Computer Networks"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1389128626002641?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1389128626002641?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T15:49:08Z","timestamp":1780415348000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1389128626002641"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"references-count":44,"alternative-id":["S1389128626002641"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252","relation":{},"ISSN":["1389-1286"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1389-1286","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Beyond flat identification: Exploiting site-page structure for hierarchical webpage fingerprinting","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Computer Networks","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.comnet.2026.112252","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Published by Elsevier B.V.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"112252"}}