{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T12:07:06Z","timestamp":1779451626506,"version":"3.53.1"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445","type":"retraction","label":"Retraction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764547200000}}],"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764547200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764547200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Computers &amp; Education"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]],"date-time":"2025-08-29T15:47:01Z","timestamp":1756482421000},"page":"105445","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"special_numbering":"C","title":["RETRACTED: How children learn from robots: Educational implications of communicative style and gender in child\u2013robot interaction"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"239","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9605-4251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konrad","family":"Maj","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-0657-9892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ariadna","family":"Go\u0142\u0119bicka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zuzanna","family":"Siwi\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"21","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aat5954","article-title":"Social robots for education: A review","volume":"3","author":"Belpaeme","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science Robotics"},{"issue":"7\u20138","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2011.04.003","article-title":"Understanding how children understand robots: Perceived animism in child\u2013robot interaction","volume":"69","author":"Beran","year":"2011","journal-title":"International Journal of Human-Computer Studies"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib3","series-title":"Use of voice assistants & generative AI by children and families","author":"Bickham","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib4","series-title":"Social robotics: Proceedings of the 8th international conference on social robotics, ICSR 2016","first-page":"306","article-title":"The effects of an impolite vs. a polite robot playing rock\u2013paper\u2013scissors","author":"Castro-Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2016"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib5","first-page":"13","article-title":"Exploring the possibility of using humanoid robots as instructional tools for teaching a second language in primary school","volume":"13","author":"Chang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Educational Technology & Society"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib6","series-title":"Childwise monitor report 2020","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2022.818489","article-title":"Children\u2013robot friendship, moral agency, and Aristotelian virtue development","volume":"9","author":"Constantinescu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frontiers in Robotics and AI"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib8","first-page":"41","article-title":"Come i bambini pensano alla mente del robot. Il ruolo dell\u2019attaccamento e della Teoria della Mente nell\u2019attribuzione di stati mentali ad un agente robotico","volume":"32","author":"Di Dio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sistemi Intelligenti"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib9","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2017 ACM\/IEEE conference on interaction design and children","first-page":"595","article-title":"\"Hey Google, is it OK if I eat you?\" initial explorations in child-agent interaction","author":"Druga","year":"2017"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00374-3","article-title":"Anthropomorphism and the social robot","volume":"42","author":"Duffy","year":"2003","journal-title":"Robotics and Autonomous Systems"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.21608\/idj.2024.348528","article-title":"A study of generative artificial intelligence applications and industrial design of robots to innovate a prototype used in textile designing and printing","volume":"14","author":"Elsayegh","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Design Journal"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib12","series-title":"Handbook of research on technoself: Identity in a technological society","first-page":"299","article-title":"Can a robot be a friend?","author":"Emmeche","year":"2014"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.114.4.864","article-title":"On seeing human: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism","volume":"114","author":"Epley","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2213","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1559-1816.2012.00937.x","article-title":"(S)he's got the look: Gender stereotyping of robots","volume":"42","author":"Eyssel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Social Psychology"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.41.4.1149","article-title":"Statistical power analyses using G\u2217Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses","volume":"41","author":"Faul","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib16","first-page":"3","article-title":"The influence of the social context on the acceptance of robots","volume":"24","author":"Fortunati","year":"2022","journal-title":"New Media & Society"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2013.07.043","article-title":"Storytelling by a kindergarten social assistive robot: A tool for constructive learning in preschool education","volume":"70","author":"Fridin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1002\/hbe2.321","article-title":"Children's mental, social, and moral attributions toward a familiar digital voice assistant","volume":"3","author":"Girouard-Hallam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib19","article-title":"Obedience to robot. Humanoid robot as an experimenter in milgram paradigm","volume":"1","author":"Grzyb","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior: Artificial Humans"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2006.00886.x","article-title":"Trust in testimony: How children learn about science and religion","volume":"77","author":"Harris","year":"2006","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1002\/hbe2.271","article-title":"Parent reports of children's parasocial relationships with conversational agents: Trusted voices in children's lives","volume":"3","author":"Hoffman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib22","author":"Holthaus"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib23","first-page":"247","article-title":"A socially assistive robot for improving the learning experience in elementary education","volume":"29","author":"Hong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Interactive Learning Environments"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib24","series-title":"Technologies of religion","first-page":"123","article-title":"Invocational media: Reconceptualising the computer","author":"Hrachovec","year":"2019"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-024-01134-0","article-title":"Comparison of outcomes between robot-assisted language learning system and human tutors: Focusing on speaking ability","volume":"16","author":"Iio","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Social Robotics"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci14040390","article-title":"Reluctance to authenticity-imbued social robots as child-interaction partners","volume":"14","author":"Isteni\u010d","year":"2024","journal-title":"Education Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2025.2489820","article-title":"Social robot radical innovation: Capacities and status attributed to the NAO robot by 11 to 12-year-old students and preservice teachers' perceptions","volume":"12","author":"Isteni\u010d","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cogent Education"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib29","first-page":"681","article-title":"\u201cTry to be not too rude\u201d: Polite voice assistants positively affect users' perception of service quality","volume":"34","author":"Jucks","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib30","series-title":"Proceedings of the 7th ACM\/IEEE international conference on human-robot interaction (pp. 33\u201340)","article-title":"Do people hold a humanoid robot morally accountable for the harm it causes?","author":"Kahn","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib31","article-title":"Robots fostering friendship: The role of a social robot in mediating children's interactions","volume":"191","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00295","article-title":"Flat vs. expressive storytelling: Young children's learning and retention of a social robot's narrative","volume":"11","author":"Kory Westlund","year":"2017","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib33","article-title":"Expecting, understanding, relating, and interacting\u2014Older, middle-aged, and younger adults' perceptions of breakdown situations in human\u2013robot interaction","volume":"9","author":"Kr\u00e4mer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frontiers in Robotics and AI"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-023-00426-1","article-title":"Role of AI chatbots in education: A systematic literature review","volume":"20","author":"Labadze","year":"2023","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib35","first-page":"409","article-title":"Unmasking \u201calive\u201d: Children's appreciation of a concept linking all living things","volume":"8","author":"Leddon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Cognition and Culture"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-013-0178-y","article-title":"Social robots for long-term interaction: A survey","volume":"5","author":"Leite","year":"2013","journal-title":"International Journal of Social Robotics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib38","series-title":"Proceedings of the 34th annual meeting of the cognitive science society","first-page":"1882","article-title":"The physical presence of a robot tutor increases cognitive learning gains","author":"Leyzberg","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib39","article-title":"A review of robot-assisted language learning (RALL): Issues and trends","volume":"4","author":"Liang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib40","author":"Ligthart"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2023.1242127","article-title":"Should robots be polite? Expectations about politeness in human\u2013robot interaction","volume":"10","author":"Lumer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Frontiers in Robotics and AI"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-024-01139-9","article-title":"\u201cNo, I won't do that.\u201d assertive behavior of robots and its perception by children","volume":"16","author":"Maj","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Social Robotics"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib43","article-title":"The affective mentalizing scale (AMS): A new questionnaire to measure children's perception of mental states in social robots","volume":"9","author":"Manzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Robotics"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib44","first-page":"395","article-title":"Modeling engagement in social human\u2013robot interactions","volume":"10","author":"Mart\u00ednez-Miranda","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Social Robotics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib45","article-title":"The effect of robot gaze on persuasive communication","volume":"8","author":"Miyahara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Frontiers in Robotics and AI"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-019-00913-y","article-title":"A possibility of inappropriate use of gender studies in human\u2013robot interaction","volume":"35","author":"Nomura","year":"2020","journal-title":"AI & Society"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib47","first-page":"236","article-title":"Preschoolers' and adults' animism tendencies toward a humanoid robot after a live interaction","volume":"61","author":"Okanda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Japanese Psychological Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib48","first-page":"447","article-title":"Friends or simply indifferent? Studying children's likability and desired friendship towards an empathic robot","volume":"13","author":"Oliveira","year":"2021","journal-title":"International Journal of Social Robotics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.103924","article-title":"A systematic review of socially assistive robots in pre-tertiary education","volume":"155","author":"Papadopoulos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib50","article-title":"The ethics of robotic nudging in education: The case of coaching robot tutors","volume":"27","author":"Peter","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science and Engineering Ethics"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2020.101993","article-title":"Are friends electric? The benefits and risks of human\u2013robot relationships","volume":"24","author":"Prescott","year":"2021","journal-title":"iScience"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib52","first-page":"1","article-title":"The influence of politeness and empathy in human\u2013robot interaction","volume":"10","author":"Ramachandran","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib53","series-title":"The media equation: How people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places","author":"Reeves","year":"1996"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13501","article-title":"Robot NAO integrated lesson vs. traditional lesson: Measuring learning outcomes on the topic of \u201csocietal change\u201d and the mediating effect of students\u2019 attitudes","volume":"56","author":"Rosanda","year":"2025","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib55","series-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on robot and human interactive communication (RO-MAN 2020)","first-page":"1063","article-title":"Children's trust in socially assistive robots: An application of the wizard-of-oz paradigm","author":"Sandygulova","year":"2020"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-016-0667-2","article-title":"The case of classroom robots: Teachers\u2019 deliberations on the ethical tensions","volume":"37","author":"Serholt","year":"2016","journal-title":"AI & Society"},{"issue":"21","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23137","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v38i21.30359","article-title":"Build your own robot friend: An open-source learning module for accessible and engaging AI education","volume":"38","author":"Shi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib58","first-page":"1223","article-title":"A meta-analysis on children's trust in social robots","volume":"13","author":"Stower","year":"2021","journal-title":"International Journal of Social Robotics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib59","article-title":"Young children's behavioral and cognitive understanding of robots as social agents","volume":"15","author":"Taniguchi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib60","series-title":"Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other","author":"Turkle","year":"2011"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1080\/09540090600868912","article-title":"Relational artifacts with children and elders: The complexities of cybercompanionship","volume":"18","author":"Turkle","year":"2006","journal-title":"Connection Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib62","series-title":"I'd blush if I could: Closing gender divides in digital skills through education","year":"2019"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-019-00569-0","article-title":"Child\u2013robot relationship formation: A narrative review of empirical research","volume":"12","author":"van Straten","year":"2020","journal-title":"International Journal of Social Robotics"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib64","first-page":"5","article-title":"Young children's understanding of living and non-living things: A study of conceptual change in childhood","volume":"29","author":"Venville","year":"2004","journal-title":"Australian Journal of Early Childhood"},{"issue":"21","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aat7111","article-title":"Children conform, adults resist: A robot group induced peer pressure on normative social conformity","volume":"3","author":"Vollmer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science Robotics"}],"container-title":["Computers &amp; Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0360131525002131?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0360131525002131?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T11:23:37Z","timestamp":1779449017000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0360131525002131"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"references-count":63,"alternative-id":["S0360131525002131"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445","relation":{},"ISSN":["0360-1315"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0360-1315","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"RETRACTED: How children learn from robots: Educational implications of communicative style and gender in child\u2013robot interaction","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Computers & Education","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105445","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"105445"}}