{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T11:37:36Z","timestamp":1777117056303,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,18]],"date-time":"2026-04-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776470400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Computers & Education"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,18]],"date-time":"2026-04-18T14:52:00Z","timestamp":1776523920000},"page":"105641","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Development and validation of a scenario-based multiple-choice test of AI ethical competence (AIEC) using item response theory"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"251","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1199-9855","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yun","family":"Dai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Chen","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1519-2176","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ziyan","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-1032-9861","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jianjun","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Yanmei","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib1","article-title":"Ethical principles for artificial intelligence in K-12 education","volume":"4","author":"Adams","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654315582066","article-title":"The theory and practice of culturally relevant education: A synthesis of research across content areas","volume":"86","author":"Aronson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Review of Educational Research"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib3","series-title":"Standards for educational and psychological testing","author":"Association","year":"2014"},{"issue":"2\u20132","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.30630\/joiv.6.2-2.1126","article-title":"Analysis of AI ethical competence to computational thinking","volume":"6","author":"Bae","year":"2022","journal-title":"JOIV: International Journal on Informatics Visualization"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib5","series-title":"The basics of item response theory","author":"Baker","year":"2001"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2024.101838","article-title":"AI and culture: Culturally dependent responses to AI systems","volume":"58","author":"Barnes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib7","series-title":"5 AI misconceptions debunked: Artificial intelligence can be a very confusing topic","author":"Bergdahl","year":"2021"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02293801","article-title":"Marginal maximum likelihood estimation of item parameters: Application of an EM algorithm","volume":"46","author":"Bock","year":"1981","journal-title":"Psychometrika"},{"issue":"GROUP","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3463929","article-title":"Adapting ethical sensitivity as a construct to study technology design teams","volume":"5","author":"Boyd","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib10","series-title":"Educational measurement","author":"Brennan","year":"2023"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1177\/0049124104268644","article-title":"Multimodel inference: understanding AIC and BIC in model selection","volume":"33","author":"Burnham","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sociological Methods & Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s40594-023-00418-7","article-title":"AI literacy in K-12: A systematic literature review","volume":"10","author":"Casal-Otero","year":"2023","journal-title":"International Journal of STEM Education"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib13","first-page":"89","article-title":"Perceptions of and behavioral intentions towards learning artificial intelligence in primary school students","volume":"24","author":"Chai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Technology & Society"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib14","article-title":"Developing and validating measures for AI literacy tests: From self-reported to objective measures","volume":"7","author":"Chiu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib15","series-title":"Sampling techniques","author":"Cochran","year":"1977"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib16","series-title":"AI ethics","author":"Coeckelbergh","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib17","series-title":"The moral intelligence of children","author":"Coles","year":"1998"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1037\/a0031021","article-title":"Deontological and utilitarian inclinations in moral decision making: A process dissociation approach","volume":"104","author":"Conway","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1007\/s11165-022-10072-8","article-title":"Negotiation of epistemological understandings and teaching practices between primary teachers and scientists about artificial intelligence in professional development","volume":"53","author":"Dai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Research in Science Education"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1177\/07356331231201342","article-title":"Effect of an analogy-based approach of artificial intelligence pedagogy in upper primary schools","volume":"61","author":"Dai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Computing Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1002\/jee.20503","article-title":"Collaborative construction of artificial intelligence curriculum in primary schools","volume":"112","author":"Dai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Engineering Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib20","series-title":"Explanatory item response models: A generalized linear and nonlinear approach","author":"De Boeck","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib21","first-page":"51","article-title":"A new definition and conceptualization of ethical competence","volume":"29","author":"De Schrijver","year":"2013","journal-title":"Achieving ethical competence for public service leadership"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib22","series-title":"2008 eighth IEEE international conference on advanced learning technologies","article-title":"Concrete programming: Using small robots in primary schools","author":"Demo","year":"2008"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib23","series-title":"Scale development: Theory and applications","author":"DeVellis","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib24","series-title":"Proceedings of the 17th ACM conference on interaction design and children","article-title":"How smart are the smart toys? Children and parents' agent interaction and intelligence attribution","author":"Druga","year":"2018"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib25","series-title":"Essentials of educational measurement","author":"Ebel","year":"1972"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.11648\/j.ajtas.20160501.11","article-title":"Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling","volume":"5","author":"Etikan","year":"2016","journal-title":"American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib27","series-title":"The ethics of artificial intelligence: Principles, challenges, and opportunities","author":"Floridi","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib28","series-title":"2021 research on equity and sustained participation in engineering, computing, and technology (respect)]. 6th conference on research in equitable and sustained participation in engineering, computing, and technology (RESPECT)","article-title":"Imagine a more ethical AI: Using stories to develop teens' awareness and understanding of artificial intelligence and its societal impacts","author":"Forsyth","year":"2021"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167215575731","article-title":"Gender differences in responses to moral dilemmas: A process dissociation analysis","volume":"41","author":"Friesdorf","year":"2015","journal-title":"Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s10339-009-0335-2","article-title":"Gender-related differences in moral judgments","volume":"11","author":"Fumagalli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cognitive Processing"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib31","first-page":"626","article-title":"What makes moral dilemma judgments \u201cutilitarian\u201d or \u201cdeontological\u201d","volume":"12","author":"Gawronski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Social Neuroscience"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654317726529","article-title":"Developing, analyzing, and using distractors for multiple-choice tests in education: A comprehensive review","volume":"87","author":"Gierl","year":"2017","journal-title":"Review of Educational Research"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib33","series-title":"In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development","author":"Gilligan","year":"1993"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1080\/1475939X.2024.2428601","article-title":"The ethics of using AI in K-12 education: A systematic literature review","volume":"34","author":"Gouseti","year":"2025","journal-title":"Technology, Pedagogy and Education"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2007.11.004","article-title":"Cognitive load selectively interferes with utilitarian moral judgment","volume":"107","author":"Greene","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib36","series-title":"2025 IEEE global engineering education conference (EDUCON)","article-title":"Enhancing ethical reasoning in engineering education through student-created interactive ethical scenarios using generative AI","author":"Grey","year":"2025"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1080\/02635143.2021.1947223","article-title":"Students' argumentation in the contexts of science, religious education, and interdisciplinary science-religious education scenarios","volume":"41","author":"Guilfoyle","year":"2023","journal-title":"Research in Science & Technological Education"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acra.2013.04.009","article-title":"Inherent limitations of multiple-choice testing","volume":"20","author":"Gunderman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Academic Radiology"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1207\/S15324818AME1503_5","article-title":"A review of multiple-choice item-writing guidelines for classroom assessment","volume":"15","author":"Haladyna","year":"2002","journal-title":"Applied Measurement in Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib40","series-title":"Developing and validating test items","author":"Haladyna","year":"2013"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1037\/1040-3590.7.3.238","article-title":"Content validity in psychological assessment: A functional approach to concepts and methods","volume":"7","author":"Haynes","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychological Assessment"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3483841","article-title":"How do computer science students make decisions in ethical situations? Implications for teaching computing ethics based on a grounded theory study","volume":"22","author":"Hedayati-Mehdiabadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Computing Education"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10207","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-13169-x","article-title":"Young children's understanding of AI","volume":"30","author":"Heeg","year":"2025","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib44","article-title":"Educational effects of the case method in teaching AI ethics.Lecture notes in networks and systems [information systems and technologies, worldcist 2022","volume":"1","author":"Hishiyama","year":"2022","journal-title":"World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (WorldCIST), Electr Network"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib46","article-title":"Development and validation of a competency-based ladder pathway for AI literacy enhancement among higher vocational students","volume":"15","author":"Hong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.126.5.703","article-title":"Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis","volume":"126","author":"Jaffee","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11635","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11086-5","article-title":"Development and validation of an instrument to measure undergraduate students' attitudes toward the ethics of artificial intelligence (AT-EAI) and analysis of its difference by gender and experience of AI education","volume":"27","author":"Jang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-019-0088-2","article-title":"The global landscape of AI ethics guidelines","volume":"1","author":"Jobin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature Machine Intelligence"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib50","series-title":"The sociotechnical entanglement of AI and values","author":"Johnson","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib51","article-title":"AI literacy for ethical use of chatbot: Will students accept AI ethics?","volume":"6","author":"Kajiwara","year":"2024","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2023.123106","article-title":"Unlocking society's standings in artificial intelligence","volume":"200","author":"Kanzola","year":"2024","journal-title":"Technological Forecasting and Social Change"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcci.2022.100539","article-title":"High school students exploring machine learning and its societal implications: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"34","author":"Kaspersen","year":"2022","journal-title":"International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.14400\/JDPM.2014.12.1.71","article-title":"Development and validation of ethical awareness scale for AI technology","volume":"20","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Digital Convergence"},{"issue":"13","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16125","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12497-2","article-title":"Tangible computing tools in AI education: Approach to improve elementary students' knowledge, perception, and behavioral intention towards AI","volume":"29","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4703","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11408-7","article-title":"Evaluating an artificial intelligence literacy programme for empowering and developing concepts, literacy and ethical awareness in senior secondary students","volume":"28","author":"Kong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib57","series-title":"Educational testing and measurement","author":"Kubiszyn","year":"2024"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-024-09680-2","article-title":"A sociotechnical system perspective on AI","volume":"34","author":"Kudina","year":"2024","journal-title":"Minds and Machines"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib59","first-page":"99","article-title":"Guessing, partial knowledge, and misconceptions in multiple-choice tests","volume":"14","author":"Lau","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Technology & Society"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1177\/0969733016667773","article-title":"Ethical competence: An integrative review","volume":"25","author":"Lechasseur","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nursing Ethics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib61","series-title":"Proceedings of the 52nd ACM technical symposium on computer science education","article-title":"Developing middle school students' AI literacy","author":"Lee","year":"2021"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib62","first-page":"3","article-title":"Culturally-relevant and responsive pedagogy in computing: A quick scoping review","volume":"5","author":"Leonard","year":"2021","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer Sciences and Engineering Systems"},{"issue":"28","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29171","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v39i28.35190","article-title":"Fostering Epistemic Insights into AI Ethics through a Constructionist Pedagogy: An Interdisciplinary Approach to AI Literacy","volume":"39","author":"Lin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.70016","article-title":"Children\u2019s conceptions of AI, ethics and intelligence in China: Evidence from drawing and ranking activities","volume":"57","author":"Lin","year":"2026","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2023.104813","article-title":"Technological support to foster students' artificial intelligence ethics: An augmented reality-based contextualized dilemma discussion approach","volume":"201","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1038\/s41539-024-00264-4","article-title":"A systematic review of AI literacy scales","volume":"9","author":"Lintner","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Science of Learning"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib66","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2020 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems","article-title":"What is AI literacy? Competencies and design considerations","author":"Long","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib67","series-title":"Applications of item response theory to practical testing problems","author":"Lord","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib68","article-title":"Fostering responsible AI literacy: A systematic review of K-12 AI ethics education","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1080\/22054952.2021.1914297","article-title":"Using case studies in engineering ethics education: The case for immersive scenarios through stakeholder engagement and real life data","volume":"26","author":"Martin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Australasian Journal of Engineering Education"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-022-00325-y","article-title":"Machine learning for all!\u2014introducing machine learning in middle and high school","volume":"34","author":"Martins","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib71","article-title":"Secondary school students' mental models and attitudes regarding artificial intelligence-A scoping review","author":"Marx","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1080\/01421590400013495","article-title":"Improving the fairness of multiple-choice questions: A literature review","volume":"26","author":"McCoubrie","year":"2004","journal-title":"Medical Teacher"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcci.2023.100630","article-title":"Finnish 5th and 6th graders' misconceptions about artificial intelligence","volume":"39","author":"Mertala","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib74","series-title":"AI competency framework for students","author":"Miao","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib75","article-title":"Using digital story writing as a pedagogy to develop AI literacy among primary students","volume":"3","author":"Ng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib76","series-title":"Psychometric theory","author":"Nunnally","year":"1994"},{"issue":"13","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15834","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v37i13.26880","article-title":"An analysis of engineering students\u2019 responses to an AI ethics scenario","volume":"37","author":"Orchard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1037\/pspp0000281","article-title":"Reasoning supports utilitarian resolutions to moral dilemmas across diverse measures","volume":"120","author":"Patil","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib80","volume":"Vol. 23","author":"Piaget","year":"1977"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib81","volume":"Vol. 8","author":"Piaget","year":"1952"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1007\/s10551-015-2569-5","article-title":"What is ethical competence? The role of empathy, personal values, and the five-factor model of personality in ethical decision-making","volume":"137","author":"Pohling","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Business Ethics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib83","article-title":"Artificial intelligence teaching and learning in K-12 from 2019 to 2022: A systematic literature review","volume":"4","author":"Rizvi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1559457","article-title":"Gender differences in artificial intelligence: The role of artificial intelligence anxiety","volume":"16","author":"Russo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3702242","article-title":"AI MyData: Fostering middle school students' engagement with machine learning through an ethics-infused AI curriculum","volume":"24","author":"Sanusi","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Computing Education"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/su13073718","article-title":"Learning ethics in AI-Teaching non-engineering undergraduates through situated learning","volume":"13","author":"Shih","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-025-05978-3","article-title":"The scale of artificial intelligence literacy for all (SAIL4ALL): Assessing knowledge of artificial intelligence in all adult populations","volume":"12","author":"Soto-Sanfiel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib88","first-page":"1","article-title":"A scoping review of empirical research on AI literacy assessments","author":"Su","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research & Development"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2018.11.046","article-title":"Gender differences in privacy tendencies on social network sites: A meta-analysis","volume":"93","author":"Tifferet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s40594-024-00493-4","article-title":"Unpacking the role of AI ethics online education for science and engineering students","volume":"11","author":"Usher","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of STEM Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0146621603259277","article-title":"A comparative study of test data dimensionality assessment procedures under nonparametric IRT models","volume":"28","author":"Van Abswoude","year":"2004","journal-title":"Applied Psychological Measurement"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-025-00519-z","article-title":"Assessment of AI ethical reflection: The development and validation of the AI ethical reflection scale (AIERS) for university students","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib94","series-title":"International conference on human-computer interaction","article-title":"\u201cI like that you have to poke around\u201d: Instructors on how experiential approaches to AI literacy spark inquiry and critical thinking","author":"Warrier","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.2307\/3857568","article-title":"Scenarios in business ethics research: Review, critical assessment, and recommendations","author":"Weber","year":"1992","journal-title":"Business Ethics Quarterly"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib96","series-title":"Pacific Asia conference on information systems (PACIS) 2023 proceedings, nanchang","article-title":"Toward an objective measurement of AI literacy","author":"Weber","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib97","series-title":"Using ethical scenarios to explore the future of artificial intelligence in primary and secondary education","author":"Wieczorek","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib98","article-title":"AI ethics education: A systematic literature review","author":"Wiese","year":"2025","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-022-00298-y","article-title":"AI plus ethics curricula for middle school youth: Lessons learned from three project-based curricula","volume":"33","author":"Williams","year":"2023","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib100","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2019 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems, Glasgow Scotland UK","article-title":"A is for artificial intelligence: The impact of artificial intelligence activities on young children's perceptions of robots","author":"Williams","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib101","series-title":"Cognitive interviewing: A tool for improving questionnaire design","author":"Willis","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib102","series-title":"Proceedings of the 1967 invitational conference on testing problems","article-title":"Sample-free test calibration and person measurement","author":"Wright","year":"1986"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2013.12.008","article-title":"Ethical dilemma scenarios and emerging technologies","volume":"87","author":"Wright","year":"2014","journal-title":"Technological Forecasting and Social Change"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2022.104582","article-title":"A self-determination theory (SDT) design approach for inclusive and diverse artificial intelligence (AI) education","volume":"189","author":"Xia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib105","article-title":"A framework for AI ethics literacy: Development, validation, and its role in fostering students' self-rated learning competence","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib106","first-page":"93","article-title":"Artificial intelligence (AI) learning tools in K-12 education: A scoping review","volume":"12","author":"Yim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Computers in Education"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2985","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-020-00253-x","article-title":"Creative anticipatory ethical reasoning with scenario analysis and design fiction","volume":"26","author":"York","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science and Engineering Ethics"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2011.07.017","article-title":"Stress alters personal moral decision making","volume":"37","author":"Youssef","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-022-00293-3","article-title":"Integrating ethics and career futures with technical learning to promote AI literacy for middle school students: An exploratory study","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib110","series-title":"Differential item functioning","first-page":"337","article-title":"Practical questions in the use of DIF statistics in test development","author":"Zieky","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib111","volume":"Vol. 160","author":"Zumbo","year":"1999"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641_bib112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2333-8504.2012.tb02290.x","article-title":"A review of ETS differential item functioning assessment procedures: Flagging rules, minimum sample size requirements, and criterion refinement","volume":"2012","author":"Zwick","year":"2012","journal-title":"ETS Research Report Series"}],"container-title":["Computers & Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0360131526000795?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0360131526000795?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T10:52:16Z","timestamp":1777114336000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0360131526000795"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"references-count":112,"alternative-id":["S0360131526000795"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641","relation":{},"ISSN":["0360-1315"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0360-1315","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Development and validation of a scenario-based multiple-choice test of AI ethical competence (AIEC) using item response theory","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Computers & Education","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105641","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"105641"}}