{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T16:07:48Z","timestamp":1779206868359,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Computers & Education"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T07:04:06Z","timestamp":1776323046000},"page":"105644","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Interacting and reflecting together in VR-mediated group learning: Immersive and observational experiences in shared mixed reality"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"251","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4181-1171","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tingting","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8005-1649","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ikseon","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6551-8885","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heng","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2010.06.006","article-title":"How does desktop virtual reality enhance learning outcomes? A structural equation modeling approach","volume":"55","author":"Ai-Lim Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Computers and Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nedt.2016.06.008","article-title":"Simulation debriefing for clinical judgment development: A concept analysis","volume":"45","author":"Al Sabei","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nurse Education Today"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2648.1993.18081188.x","article-title":"Reflection: A review of the literature","volume":"18","author":"Atkins","year":"1993","journal-title":"Journal of Advanced Nursing"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1080\/13540600220127368","article-title":"Developing reflection on practice through journal writing: Impacts of variations in the focus and level of feedback","volume":"8","author":"Bain","year":"2002","journal-title":"Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib9","series-title":"Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory","author":"Bandura","year":"1986"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1177\/1090198104263660","article-title":"Health promotion by social cognitive means","volume":"31","author":"Bandura","year":"2004","journal-title":"Health Education & Behavior"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib11","series-title":"Qualitative data analysis: Practical strategies","author":"Bazeley","year":"2013"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib12","article-title":"Theory building in qualitative research: Reconsidering the problem of induction","volume":"14","author":"Bendassolli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Forum for Qualitative Social Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1145\/292834.292836","article-title":"Understanding and constructing shared spaces with mixed-reality boundaries","volume":"5","author":"Benford","year":"1998","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib14","series-title":"Reflection: Turning experience into learning","first-page":"18","article-title":"Promoting reflection in learning: A model","author":"Boud","year":"1985"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1177\/0022167883232011","article-title":"Reflective learning: Key to learning from experience","volume":"23","author":"Boyd","year":"1983","journal-title":"Journal of Humanistic Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa","article-title":"Using thematic analysis in psychology","volume":"3","author":"Braun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Qualitative Research in Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib17","first-page":"766","article-title":"Researcher as instrument","volume":"2","author":"Brodsky","year":"2008"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1080\/02619768.2019.1576626","article-title":"Supporting collaborative reflection in teacher education: A case study","volume":"42","author":"Clar\u00e0","year":"2019","journal-title":"European Journal of Teacher Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib20","series-title":"Working minds: A practitioner's guide to cognitive task analysis","author":"Crandall","year":"2006"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib21","series-title":"Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches","author":"Creswell","year":"2018"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib22","first-page":"7","volume":"25","author":"Cumming","year":"2014","journal-title":"The new statistics: Why and how. Psychological science"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1080\/15213269.2015.1015740","article-title":"How immersive is enough? A meta-analysis of the effect of immersive technology on user presence","volume":"19","author":"Cummings","year":"2016","journal-title":"Media Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8535.2009.01038.x","article-title":"What are the learning affordances of 3\u2010D virtual environments?","volume":"41","author":"Dalgarno","year":"2010","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecns.2013.04.008","article-title":"Standards of best practice: Simulation standard VI: The debriefing process","volume":"9","author":"Decker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clinical Simulation in Nursing"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib26","series-title":"How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process","author":"Dewey","year":"1933"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib27","first-page":"109","article-title":"The essentials of debriefing in simulation learning: A concept analysis","volume":"30","author":"Dreifuerst","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nursing Education Perspectives"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-019-09296-0","article-title":"Improving the quality of vocational students' collaboration and knowledge acquisition through instruction and joint reflection","volume":"14","author":"Eshuis","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib29","series-title":"Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics","author":"Field","year":"2013"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib30","first-page":"1","article-title":"Reflecting on \u201creflective practice.\u201d","volume":"52","author":"Finlay","year":"2008","journal-title":"PBPL Paper"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1177\/104687810103200206","article-title":"Simulation-based training in anesthesia crisis resource management (ACRM): A decade of experience","volume":"32","author":"Gaba","year":"2001","journal-title":"Simulation & Gaming"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semperi.2013.02.008","article-title":"Introduction to debriefing","volume":"37","author":"Gardner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Seminars in Perinatology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib33","series-title":"Further education unit","article-title":"Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods","author":"Gibbs","year":"1988"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.3200\/CTCH.57.1.15-22","article-title":"Structures for facilitating student reflection","volume":"57","author":"Grossman","year":"2009","journal-title":"College Teaching"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40692-020-00169-2","article-title":"Immersive virtual reality as a pedagogical tool in education: A systematic literature review of quantitative learning outcomes and experimental design","volume":"8","author":"Hamilton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Computers in Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-023-09397-x","article-title":"Coordinating modalities of mathematical collaboration in shared VR environments","volume":"18","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1080\/00405849909543834","article-title":"Making cooperative learning work","volume":"38","author":"Johnson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Theory into Practice"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2024.105124","article-title":"Immersive procedural training in virtual reality: A systematic literature review","author":"Jongbloed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Computers and Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1109\/21.31053","article-title":"Critical decision method for eliciting knowledge","volume":"19","author":"Klein","year":"1989","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib41","series-title":"Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development","author":"Kolb","year":"1984"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6920-11-104","article-title":"Factors confounding the assessment of reflection: A critical review","volume":"11","author":"Koole","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMC Medical Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1080\/1354060042000337093","article-title":"Levels in reflection: Core reflection as a means to enhance professional growth","volume":"11","author":"Korthagen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Teachers and Teaching"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cag.2013.12.004","article-title":"Immersive full-surround multi-user system design","volume":"40","author":"Kuchera-Morin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Computers & Graphics"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-018-0364-1","article-title":"Verification of the possibility and effectiveness of experiential learning using HMD-based immersive VR technologies","volume":"23","author":"Kwon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virtual Reality"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550617697177","article-title":"Equivalence tests: A practical primer for t tests, correlations, and meta-analyses","volume":"8","author":"Lakens","year":"2017","journal-title":"Social Psychological and Personality Science"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1177\/1046878192232003","article-title":"Debriefing: Toward a systematic assessment of theory and practice","volume":"23","author":"Lederman","year":"1992","journal-title":"Simulation & Gaming"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib48","series-title":"Naturalistic inquiry","author":"Lincoln","year":"1985"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2021.104316","article-title":"Performing versus observing: Investigating the effectiveness of group debriefing in a VR-based safety education program","volume":"175","author":"Luo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Computers & Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2019.1694667","article-title":"Using virtual reality to identify and modify risky pedestrian behaviors amongst Chinese children","volume":"21","author":"Luo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Traffic Injury Prevention"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1080\/1475939X.2020.1737210","article-title":"Virtual, augmented and mixed reality in K\u201312 education: A review of the literature","volume":"29","author":"Maas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Technology, Pedagogy and Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-020-09586-2","article-title":"The cognitive affective model of immersive learning (CAMIL): A theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality","volume":"33","author":"Makransky","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.3390\/sym11040476","article-title":"A study on the presence of immersive user interface in collaborative virtual environments application","volume":"11","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Symmetry"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-025-09446-7","article-title":"Activity-based collaborative virtual reality: Conceptualising immersive virtual reality for collaborative learning","author":"Paulsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib54","series-title":"Psychology of the child","author":"Piaget","year":"1972"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib55","series-title":"RStudio: Integrated development environment for R","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib56","series-title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Version 4.4.0","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.103778","article-title":"A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda","volume":"147","author":"Radianti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Computers and Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib58","series-title":"Organizing reflection","first-page":"15","article-title":"Organizing reflection: An introduction","author":"Reynolds","year":"2017"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1177\/016146810210400402","article-title":"Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking","volume":"104","author":"Rodgers","year":"2002","journal-title":"Teachers College Record"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1080\/14623940500105833","article-title":"Can reflective practice be taught?","volume":"6","author":"Russell","year":"2005","journal-title":"Reflective Practice"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1080\/01421590903050374","article-title":"The use of reflection in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 44","volume":"31","author":"Sandars","year":"2009","journal-title":"Medical Teacher"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2024.105214","article-title":"Virtual vs. traditional learning in higher education: A systematic review of comparative studies","volume":"227","author":"Santilli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Computers and Education"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib4","series-title":"Association for Educational Communications and Technology Annual Convention","article-title":"A scenario-based authentic virtual environment for children\u2019s pedestrian safety education program (SAVE4Children): Its design, implementation, and potential impacts [Invited presentation]","year":"2019"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib63","first-page":"279","article-title":"Value of debriefing during simulated crisis management: Oral versus video-assisted oral feedback","volume":"105","author":"Savoldelli","year":"2006","journal-title":"The Journal of the American Society of Anesthesiologists"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2019.1681467","article-title":"The effect of game\u2013based immersive virtual reality learning environment on learning outcomes: Designing an intrinsic integrated educational game for pre\u2013class learning","volume":"30","author":"Shi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Interactive Learning Environments"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-023-09413-0","article-title":"Exploring students' immersive VR experiences as resources for collaborative meaning making and learning","volume":"19","author":"Silseth","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib66","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2019 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems","first-page":"1","article-title":"What is mixed reality?","author":"Speicher","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2018.04.019","article-title":"The state of immersive technology research: A literature analysis","volume":"86","author":"Suh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720812448394","article-title":"Do team and individual debriefs enhance performance? A meta-analysis","volume":"55","author":"Tannenbaum","year":"2013","journal-title":"Human Factors and Ergonomics Society"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib69","series-title":"Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes","author":"Vygotsky","year":"1978"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-022-10164-2","article-title":"Reflection as a social phenomenon: A conceptual framework toward group reflection research","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644_bib70","series-title":"Case study research and applications","author":"Yin","year":"2018"}],"container-title":["Computers & Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0360131526000837?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0360131526000837?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T15:17:55Z","timestamp":1779203875000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0360131526000837"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"references-count":67,"alternative-id":["S0360131526000837"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644","relation":{},"ISSN":["0360-1315"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0360-1315","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Interacting and reflecting together in VR-mediated group learning: Immersive and observational experiences in shared mixed reality","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Computers & Education","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compedu.2026.105644","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"105644"}}