{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T15:04:39Z","timestamp":1774364679357,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008081","name":"Southeast University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008081","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100025517","name":"Big Data Computing Center, Southeast University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100025517","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013076","name":"National Major Science and Technology Projects of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2025ZD1303100"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025ZD1303100"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013076","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Computers &amp; Security"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T00:25:09Z","timestamp":1770769509000},"page":"104861","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Enhancing AKA protocol with radio frequency fingerprint for 5G network cross-layer authentication"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"165","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-8321-2548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Li","family":"Teng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8011-5603","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jie","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-3115-9702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hebing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6381-3859","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chunyang","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7863-2989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hua","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0001","series-title":"2019 IEEE 20th Wireless and Microwave Technology Conference (WAMICON)","first-page":"1","article-title":"The phase noise and clock synchronous carrier frequency offset based RF fingerprinting for the fake base station detection","author":"Ali","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0002","series-title":"2019 29th International Conference Radioelektronika (Radioelektronika)","first-page":"1","article-title":"Symbol based statistical RF fingerprinting for fake base station identification","author":"Ali","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0003","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2018 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security","first-page":"1383","article-title":"A formal analysis of 5G authentication","author":"Basin","year":"2018"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64040","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2914941","article-title":"Novel 5G authentication protocol to improve the resistance against active attacks and malicious serving networks","volume":"7","author":"Braeken","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5329","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2976740","article-title":"LSAA: a lightweight and secure access authentication scheme for both ue and mmtc devices in 5G networks","volume":"7","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0006","series-title":"Network and Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS)","article-title":"Component-based formal analysis of 5G-AKA: channel assumptions and session confusion","author":"Cremers","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0007","first-page":"156","article-title":"An efficient eCK secure certificateless authenticated key agreement scheme with security against public key replacement attacks","volume":"47","author":"Daniel","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Inf. Secur. Appl."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2022.102806","article-title":"Remote registration and group authentication of IoT devices in 5G cellular network","volume":"120","author":"Goswami","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7359","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3328025","article-title":"Carrier frequency offset in internet of things radio frequency fingerprint identification: an experimental review","volume":"11","author":"Huan","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2025.101491","article-title":"Privacy-preserved mutually-trusted 5G communications in presence of pervasive attacks","volume":"30","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2023.3327327","article-title":"Physical layer security for authentication, confidentiality, and malicious node detection: a paradigm shift in securing IoT networks","volume":"26","author":"Illi","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2022.100524","article-title":"Securing wireless communications from the perspective of physical layer: a survey","volume":"19","author":"Ji","year":"2022","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2020.107284","article-title":"OpenAirInterface: democratizing innovation in the 5G era","volume":"176","author":"Kaltenberger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0014","series-title":"2019 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy (EuroS&P)","first-page":"464","article-title":"The 5G-AKA authentication protocol privacy","author":"Koutsos","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2023.3324394","article-title":"Overcoming data limitations: a few-shot specific emitter identification method using self-supervised learning and adversarial augmentation","volume":"19","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1007\/s11235-021-00815-9","article-title":"A new authentication and key agreement protocol for 5G wireless networks","volume":"78","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Telecommun Syst"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1049\/ise2.12054","article-title":"TR-AKA: a two-phased, registered authentication and key agreement protocol for 5G mobile networks","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IET Inf. Secur."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2426","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2023.3341829","article-title":"A UAV-assisted UE access authentication scheme for 5G\/6G network","volume":"21","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Serv. Manage."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2694","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2009.080862","article-title":"Error vector magnitude to SNR conversion for nondata-aided receivers","volume":"8","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wireless Commun."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2023.09.021","article-title":"Two protocols for improving security during the authentication and key agreement procedure in the 3GPP networks","volume":"211","author":"Modiri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2021.108373","article-title":"An enhanced symmetric-key based 5G-AKA protocol","volume":"198","author":"Munilla","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2017.2748127","article-title":"Error vector magnitude analysis in generalized fading with co-channel interference","volume":"66","author":"Parthasarathy","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11621","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2024.3380671","article-title":"Hybrid RFF identification for LTE using wavelet coefficient graph and differential spectrum","volume":"73","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2023.3329683","article-title":"Lightweight radio frequency fingerprint identification scheme for V2X based on temporal correlation","volume":"19","author":"Qi","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0025","series-title":"Globecom 2020-2020 IEEE Global Communications Conference","first-page":"1","article-title":"Trust in 5G open RANs through machine learning: RF fingerprinting on the powder PAWR platform","author":"Reus-Muns","year":"2020"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.001.2200695","article-title":"Deep learning-powered radio frequency fingerprint identification: methodology and case study","volume":"61","author":"Shen","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0027","series-title":"IEEE INFOCOM 2021-IEEE Conference on Computer Communications","first-page":"1","article-title":"Radio frequency fingerprint identification for lora using spectrogram and CNN","author":"Shen","year":"2021"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2023.3283800","article-title":"Location-invariant radio frequency fingerprint for base station recognition","volume":"12","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Wireless Commun. Lett."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31771","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3357090","article-title":"Leaf-IIOT: lightweight and efficient authentication framework for the industrial internet of things","volume":"12","author":"Tanveer","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7980","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2913627","article-title":"New security mechanisms of high-reliability iot communication based on radio frequency fingerprint","volume":"6","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0031","series-title":"30th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 21)","first-page":"3595","article-title":"{Privacy-preserving} and {standard-compatible}{AKA} protocol for 5G","author":"Wang","year":"2021"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3225","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2020.3048358","article-title":"Measurement-based channel characterization for 5G downlink based on passive sounding in sub-6\u202fGHz 5G commercial networks","volume":"20","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wireless Commun."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0033","series-title":"2022 IEEE 96th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2022-Fall)","first-page":"1","article-title":"Authorized and rogue LTE terminal identification using wavelet coefficient graph with auto-encoder","author":"Wu","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0034","series-title":"2024 33rd International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks (ICCCN)","first-page":"1","article-title":"Fake base station detection and blacklisting","author":"Wuthier","year":"2024"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.3390\/info13030125","article-title":"5G-IPAKA: an improved primary authentication and key agreement protocol for 5G networks","volume":"13","author":"Xiao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Information"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0036","series-title":"IEEE INFOCOM 2025-IEEE Conference on Computer Communications","first-page":"1","article-title":"Towards robust RF fingerprint identification using spectral regrowth and carrier frequency offset","author":"Xie","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0037","series-title":"GLOBECOM 2022-2022 IEEE Global Communications Conference","first-page":"516","article-title":"A provably secure ECC-based multi-factor 5G-AKA authentication protocol","author":"Yadav","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2021.103204","article-title":"A lightweight and secure handover authentication scheme for 5G network using neighbour base stations","volume":"193","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1855","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2023.3343079","article-title":"Led-RFF: LTE DMRS-based channel robust radio frequency fingerprint identification scheme","volume":"19","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2901","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2023.3316639","article-title":"DFLNet: deep federated learning network with privacy preserving for vehicular lora nodes fingerprinting","volume":"73","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2019.2927664","article-title":"Robust and universal seamless handover authentication in 5G hetnets","volume":"18","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dependable Secure Comput."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2639","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2024.3353594","article-title":"Multisource heterogeneous specific emitter identification using attention mechanism-based RFF fusion method","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6750","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2022.3161006","article-title":"Game theoretic physical layer authentication for spoofing detection in UAV communications","volume":"71","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861_bib0044","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2018 on Asia Conference on Computer and Communications Security","first-page":"261","article-title":"FBSleuth: fake base station forensics via radio frequency fingerprinting","author":"Zhuang","year":"2018"}],"container-title":["Computers &amp; Security"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0167404826000374?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0167404826000374?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T14:19:13Z","timestamp":1774361953000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0167404826000374"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"references-count":44,"alternative-id":["S0167404826000374"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861","relation":{},"ISSN":["0167-4048"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0167-4048","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Enhancing AKA protocol with radio frequency fingerprint for 5G network cross-layer authentication","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Computers & Security","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104861","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"104861"}}