{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T03:26:16Z","timestamp":1775532376526,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Computers & Security"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T01:48:13Z","timestamp":1775180893000},"page":"104910","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Enhancing website fingerprinting through combined data augmentation strategies"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"167","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-1799-2761","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhaoxin","family":"Jin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2882-6037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tianbo","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-4072-0153","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hanrui","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6206-1300","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fangyi","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0001","unstructured":"Acar, G., Juarez, M., contributors, i., 2023. tor-browser-selenium - tor browser automation with selenium. https:\/\/github.com\/webfp\/tor-browser-selenium."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0002","article-title":"The rise of website fingerprinting on tor: analysis on techniques and assumptions","author":"Aminuddin","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0003","series-title":"ACM CCS","first-page":"1035","article-title":"Realistic website fingerprinting by augmenting network traces","author":"Bahramali","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.2478\/popets-2019-0070","article-title":"Var-CNN: a data-efficient website fingerprinting attack based on deep learning","author":"Bhat","year":"2019","journal-title":"PoPETs"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0005","unstructured":"De la Cadena, W., Mitseva, A., Hiller, J., Pennekamp, J., Reuter, S., Filter, J., Engel, T., Wehrle, K., Panchenko, A.,. Trafficsliver: fighting website fingerprinting attacks with traffic splitting. 10.1145\/3372297.3423351."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0006","series-title":"ACM CCS","article-title":"A systematic approach to developing and evaluating website fingerprinting defenses","author":"Cai","year":"2014"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0007","series-title":"Proceedings of the 37th International Conference on Machine Learning","first-page":"1597","article-title":"A simple framework for contrastive learning of visual representations","author":"Chen","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0008","series-title":"31st USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 22)","first-page":"753","article-title":"Online website fingerprinting: evaluating website fingerprinting attacks on tor in the real world","author":"Cherubin","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0009","series-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)","article-title":"Autoaugment: learning augmentation strategies from data","author":"Cubuk","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0010","series-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) Workshops","article-title":"Randaugment: practical automated data augmentation with a reduced search space","author":"Cubuk","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0011","series-title":"Robust and reliable early-stage website fingerprinting attacks via spatial-temporal distribution analysis","author":"Deng","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0012","series-title":"2023 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)","article-title":"Robust multi-tab website fingerprinting attacks in the wild","author":"Deng","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0013","series-title":"2025 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)","article-title":"Countmamba: a generalized website fingerprinting attack via coarse-grained representation and fine-grained prediction","author":"Deng","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0014","series-title":"USENIX Security","first-page":"303","article-title":"Tor: the second-generation onion router","author":"Dingledine","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0015","series-title":"USENIX Security","article-title":"Zero-delay lightweight defenses against website fingerprinting","author":"Gong","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0016","series-title":"S&P","article-title":"Surakav: generating realistic traces for a strong website fingerprinting defense","author":"Gong","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0017","article-title":"Wfdefproxy: real world implementation and evaluation of website fingerprinting defenses","author":"Gong","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE TIFS"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0018","series-title":"Proceedings of the 37th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference","article-title":"Bapm: block attention profiling model for multi-tab website fingerprinting attacks on tor","author":"Guan","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0019","series-title":"Faster autoaugment: learning augmentation strategies using backpropagation","author":"Hataya","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0020","series-title":"USENIX Security","article-title":"K-fingerprinting: a robust scalable website fingerprinting technique","author":"Hayes","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0021","series-title":"Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Machine Learning","article-title":"Population based augmentation: efficient learning of augmentation policy schedules","author":"Ho","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.56553\/popets-2023-0125","article-title":"Data-explainable website fingerprinting with network simulation","author":"Jansen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Priv. Enhancing Technol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7794","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2024.3436818","article-title":"Rudolf: an efficient and adaptive defense approach against website fingerprinting attacks based on soft actor-critic algorithm","volume":"19","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0024","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2023 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security","first-page":"1050","article-title":"Transformer-based model for multi-tab website fingerprinting attack","author":"Jin","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0025","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2014 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security","first-page":"263","article-title":"A critical evaluation of website fingerprinting attacks","author":"Juarez","year":"2014"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0026","series-title":"NDSS","article-title":"Tranco: a research-oriented top sites ranking hardened against manipulation","author":"Le Pochat","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0027","series-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems","article-title":"Fast autoaugment","author":"Lim","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2024.3468171","article-title":"Laserbeak: evolving website fingerprinting attacks with attention and multi-channel feature representation","author":"Mathews","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0029","series-title":"2023 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)","article-title":"Sok: a critical evaluation of efficient website fingerprinting defenses","author":"Mathews","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0030","series-title":"33rd USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 24)","article-title":"Stop, don\u2019t click here anymore: boosting website fingerprinting by considering sets of subpages","author":"Mitseva","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2478\/popets-2021-0029","article-title":"Gandalf: gan for data-limited fingerprinting","author":"Oh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Priv. Enhancing Technol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0032","series-title":"NDSS","article-title":"Website fingerprinting at internet scale","author":"Panchenko","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0033","unstructured":"Project, T. T., 2024. Tor Browser User Manual. https:\/\/tb-manual.torproject.org\/. https:\/\/tb-manual.torproject.org\/."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2478\/popets-2020-0043","article-title":"Tik-tok: the utility of packet timing in website fingerprinting attacks","author":"Rahman","year":"2020","journal-title":"PoPETs"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rimmer, V., Preuveneers, D., Juarez, M., Van Goethem, T., Joosen, W., 2017. Automated website fingerprinting through deep learning. arXiv preprint arXiv: 1708.06376.","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2018.23105"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0036","series-title":"USENIX Security","first-page":"607","article-title":"Subverting website fingerprinting defenses with robust traffic representation","author":"Shen","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0037","series-title":"2024 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)","first-page":"3238","article-title":"Real-time website fingerprinting defense via traffic cluster anonymization","author":"Shen","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0038","series-title":"ACM CCS","article-title":"Deep fingerprinting: undermining website fingerprinting defenses with deep learning","author":"Sirinam","year":"2018"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0039","series-title":"ACM CSS","first-page":"1131","article-title":"Triplet fingerprinting: more practical and portable website fingerprinting with n-shot learning","author":"Sirinam","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0040","series-title":"International Conference on Artificial Neural Networks","first-page":"270","article-title":"A survey on deep transfer learning","author":"Tan","year":"2018"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0041","series-title":"Proceedings of the Eleventh ACM Conference on Data and Application Security and Privacy","article-title":"Adaptive fingerprinting: website fingerprinting over few encrypted traffic","author":"Wang","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0042","series-title":"2020 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)","article-title":"High precision open-world website fingerprinting","author":"Wang","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0043","series-title":"USENIX Security","article-title":"Effective attacks and provable defenses for website fingerprinting","author":"Wang","year":"2014"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0044","series-title":"WPES","article-title":"Improved website fingerprinting on tor","author":"Wang","year":"2013"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0045","article-title":"SnWF: website fingerprinting attack by ensembling the snapshot of deep learning","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2023.103577","article-title":"A comprehensive analysis of website fingerprinting defenses on tor","author":"Xiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0047","series-title":"Proceedings of the ACM Web Conference 2024","article-title":"Contrastive fingerprinting: a novel website fingerprinting attack over few-shot traces","author":"Xie","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0048","article-title":"An automated multi-tab website fingerprinting attack","author":"Yin","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Depend. Secure Comput."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0049","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2020 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security","first-page":"3","article-title":"Bypassing tor exit blocking with exit bridge onion services","author":"Zhang","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910_bib0050","series-title":"Towards fine-grained webpage fingerprinting at scale","author":"Zhao","year":"2024"}],"container-title":["Computers & Security"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0167404826000866?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0167404826000866?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T02:29:35Z","timestamp":1775528975000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0167404826000866"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]},"references-count":50,"alternative-id":["S0167404826000866"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910","relation":{},"ISSN":["0167-4048"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0167-4048","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Enhancing website fingerprinting through combined data augmentation strategies","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Computers & Security","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cose.2026.104910","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"104910"}}