{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T18:04:41Z","timestamp":1783965881468,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1793491200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1793491200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779840000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/Z533221\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/Z533221\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Computers &amp; Security"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T15:52:02Z","timestamp":1779897122000},"page":"105001","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Organisational cybersecurity challenges in digital twin development: A critical analysis and research directions"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"170","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6974-3603","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefanos","family":"Evripidou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xicheng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Al-Quraan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Runze","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1246-8981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad","family":"Taha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Imran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1024-3618","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Flynn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0939-378X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Pezaros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0001","article-title":"Cybersecurity in distributed industrial digital twins: threats, defenses, and key takeaways","author":"Abdullahi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Present. 1st Int. Workshop Distrib. Digit. Twins"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0002","series-title":"Presented at the 2024 IEEE International Conference on Cyber Security and Resilience (CSR)","first-page":"612","article-title":"Toward a unified security framework for digital twin architectures","author":"Abdullahi","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1145\/322796.322806","article-title":"Users are not the enemy","volume":"42","author":"Adams","year":"1999","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0004","series-title":"Construction Research Congress 2022","first-page":"1253","article-title":"Digital Twin in practice: emergent insights from an ethnographic-action research study","author":"Agrawal","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0005","article-title":"Energy System Digital Twin Demonstrator Project","author":"Ainsworth","year":"2025","journal-title":"Energy Syst. Catapult"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0006","first-page":"179","article-title":"The theory of planned behavior. Organizational behavior and Human decision processes","volume":"50","author":"Ajzen","year":"1991","journal-title":"Theor. Cogn. Self-Regul."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1109\/MSEC.2024.3504193","article-title":"Digital Twin security: a perspective on efforts from standardization bodies","volume":"23","author":"Alcaraz","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Secur. Priv."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2022.3171465","article-title":"Digital Twin: a comprehensive survey of security threats","volume":"24","author":"Alcaraz","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0009","series-title":"2021 IEEE International Conference on Engineering, Technology and Innovation (ICE\/ITMC). Presented at the 2021 IEEE International Conference on Engineering, Technology and Innovation (ICE\/ITMC)","first-page":"1","article-title":"Industry engagement for identification of cybersecurity needs practices for digital twins","author":"Alshammari","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0010","series-title":"2023 IEEE International Conference on Energy Technologies for Future Grids (ETFG). Presented at the 2023 IEEE International Conference on Energy Technologies for Future Grids (ETFG)","first-page":"1","article-title":"Securing the smart grid: a review on digital twins for cyber resilience","author":"Anto","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0011","series-title":"2023 10th International Conference on ICT for Smart Society (ICISS). Presented at the 2023 10th International Conference on ICT for Smart Society (ICISS)","first-page":"1","article-title":"A systematic literature review of recent trends and challenges in digital Twin implementation","author":"Arin","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2016.57","article-title":"Security dialogues: building better relationships between Security and business","volume":"14","author":"Ashenden","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Secur. Priv."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0013","unstructured":"Bada, M., Sasse, A.M., Nurse, J.R.C., 2019. Cyber security awareness campaigns: why do they fail to change behaviour? https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.1901.02672."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.22329","article-title":"Multimodal immersive digital twin platform for cyber\u2013physical robot fleets in nuclear environments","volume":"41","author":"Baniqued","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0015","series-title":"Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Information Science and Systems, ICISS \u201920","first-page":"13","article-title":"Systematization of digital twins: ontology and Conceptual framework","author":"Barth","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0016","series-title":"Presented at the Twelfth Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security ({SOUPS} 2016)","first-page":"253","article-title":"Productive security: a scalable methodology for analysing employee security behaviours","author":"Beautement","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0017","article-title":"Towards ecosystems of connected digital twins to address global challenges","author":"Bennett","year":"2023","journal-title":"Zenodo"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa","article-title":"Using thematic analysis in psychology","volume":"3","author":"Braun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Qual. Res. Psychol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0019","series-title":"Availability, Reliability and Security","first-page":"23","article-title":"Digital Twin technology for sustainable shipping: establishing cyber-security challenges and opportunities","author":"Chalmoukis","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0020","series-title":"Proceedings of the Winter Simulation Conference, WSC \u201923","first-page":"2008","article-title":"Understanding stakeholder requirements for digital twins in manufacturing maintenance","author":"Chen","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0021","unstructured":"Council, G., Lamb, K., 2022. Gemini Papers: summary. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17863\/CAM.82192."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0022","unstructured":"CPC, 2021. Digital twin competency study - connected places Catapult."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0023","year":"2026","journal-title":"Energy digit. framew.: vis. coord. connect. energy syst."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1109\/MSEC.2019.2961650","article-title":"Unleashing the digital twin\u2019s potential for ICS security","volume":"18","author":"Dietz","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEe Secur. Priv."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.2307\/2095101","article-title":"The Iron Cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields","volume":"48","author":"DiMaggio","year":"1983","journal-title":"Am. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.2307\/258887","article-title":"The stakeholder theory of the corporation: concepts, evidence, and implications","volume":"20","author":"Donaldson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0027","series-title":"Security and Quality in Cyber-Physical Systems Engineering: With Forewords by Robert M. Lee and Tom Gilb","first-page":"383","article-title":"Digital twins for cyber-physical systems security: state of the art and outlook","author":"Eckhart","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0028","unstructured":"Enders, M., Ho\u00dfbach, N., 2019. Dimens. Digit. Twin Appl. - Lit. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0030","year":"2022","journal-title":"BEIS Energy Syst. Digit. Twin Demonstr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evripidou, S., Ani, U., Hailes, S., Watson, J., 2023a. Drawing on the success of developing a safety culture to improve the security culture in companies that use operational technology. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3850\/978-981-18-8071-1_P297-cd.","DOI":"10.3850\/978-981-18-8071-1_P297-cd"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0032","series-title":"Presented at the Nineteenth Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security (SOUPS 2023)","first-page":"113","article-title":"Exploring the security culture of operational technology (OT) organisations: the role of external consultancy in overcoming organisational barriers","author":"Evripidou","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0033","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 European Symposium on Usable Security, EuroUSEC \u201924","first-page":"137","article-title":"Understanding operational technology personnel\u2019s mindsets and their effect on cybersecurity perceptions: a qualitative study with operational technology cybersecurity practitioners","author":"Evripidou","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0034","series-title":"2025 IEEE\/ACIS 23rd International Conference on Software Engineering Research, Management and Applications (SERA). Presented at the 2025 IEEE\/ACIS 23rd International Conference on Software Engineering Research, Management and Applications (SERA)","first-page":"217","article-title":"A survey of Digital Twin Healthcare Cybersecurity Implementation methods","author":"Fogus","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2022.102840","article-title":"Governing cybersecurity from the boardroom: challenges, drivers, and ways ahead","volume":"121","author":"Gale","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2938885","article-title":"A digital twin based industrial automation and control System security architecture","volume":"16","author":"Gehrmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0037","series-title":"The Digital Twin","first-page":"97","article-title":"Digital twins: past, present, and future","author":"Grieves","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0038","article-title":"Data science skills in the energy sector: survey results","author":"Haben","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy Syst. Catapult"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0039","series-title":"Presented at the Nineteenth Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security (SOUPS 2023)","first-page":"131","article-title":"Lacking the tools and support to fix friction: results from an interview study with security managers","author":"Hielscher","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0040","series-title":"Computer Engineering, Computer Networks and Social Media Conference (SEEDA-CECNSM)","first-page":"1","article-title":"Digital Twins and Cyber Security \u2013 solution or challenge? Presented at the 2021 6th South-East Europe Design Automation","author":"Holmes","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-024-10805-3","article-title":"A review of digital twins and their application in cybersecurity based on artificial intelligence","volume":"57","author":"Homaei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0042","first-page":"597","article-title":"A taxonomy of security and defense mechanisms in digital twins-based Cyber-physical systems. Presented at the 2022 IEEE International Conferences on Internet of Things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing & Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber","author":"Hussaini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phys. Soc. Comput. (CPSCom) IEEE Smart Data (SmartData) IEEE Congr. Cybermatics (Cybermatics)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0043","unstructured":"IET, 2019. Digital twins for the built environment."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0044","unstructured":"ISA\/IEC 62443 Series, 2026."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0045","unstructured":"ISO 23247-4:2021, 2021."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0046","unstructured":"ISO\/FDIS 23247-6, 2026."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0047","unstructured":"ISO\/IEC Wd Ts 27568, 2026."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0048","article-title":"Digital twins: model. Shadow, twin, the case for policy use","author":"Johnston","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy Syst. Catapult"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirpj.2020.02.002","article-title":"Characterising the digital Twin: a systematic literature review","volume":"29","author":"Jones","year":"2020","journal-title":"CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0050","series-title":"Information & Computer Security ahead-of-print","article-title":"The effect of perceived organizational culture on employees\u2019 information security compliance","author":"Karlsson","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0051","unstructured":"Kendal, J., 2021. National digital Twin: integration architecture pattern and principles (Text)."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0052","series-title":"Proceedings of the Design Society: International Conference on Engineering Design","first-page":"1773","article-title":"From innocent Irene to parental Patrick: framing user characteristics and personas to design for cybersecurity","volume":"1","author":"Kim","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0053","series-title":"Why Understanding Non-Compliant Behaviors Provides the Basis for Effective Security","article-title":"Learning from \u201cShadow Security","author":"Kirlappos","year":"2014"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0054","series-title":"Presented at the 2022 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM)","first-page":"0162","article-title":"Challenges of digital twin application in manufacturing","author":"Kober","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compind.2024.104135","article-title":"Digital Twin stakeholder communication: characteristics, challenges, and Best practices","volume":"161","author":"Kober","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Ind."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.im.2023.103787","article-title":"Maneuvering between skepticism and optimism about hyped technologies: building trust in digital twins","volume":"60","author":"Korotkova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Inf. Manag."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0057","series-title":"Presented at the 3rd International Workshop on Computer Information Technologies in Industry 4.0","article-title":"Cybersecurity provisioning for industry 4.0 digital twin with AR components","author":"Kozak","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kritzinger, W., Karner, M., Traar, G., Henjes, J., Sihn, W., 2018. Digital Twin in manufacturing: a categorical literature review and classification. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 16th IFAC Symposium on Information Control Problems in Manufacturing INCOM 2018 51, 1016\u20131022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ifacol.2018.08.474.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2018.08.474"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0059","series-title":"Presented at the Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)","first-page":"159","article-title":"Towards Secure Digital Twins","author":"Kulik","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0060","series-title":"Intelligent Sustainable Systems","first-page":"425","article-title":"Privacy and security problems in the usage of digital twins from an industrial perspective\u2014A PRISMA approach","author":"Ku\u0161telega","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0061","series-title":"Software Business","first-page":"19","article-title":"Digital twin ecosystems: potential stakeholders and their requirements","author":"Liyanage","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsci.2025.104041","article-title":"On the role of digital twins\u2019 hype in anticipating the governance of the UK energy industry","volume":"168","author":"Michalec","year":"2025","journal-title":"Env. Sci Policy"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517221108369","article-title":"When the future meets the past: can safety and cyber security coexist in modern critical infrastructures?","volume":"9","author":"Michalec","year":"2022","journal-title":"Big. Data Soc."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyai.2025.100570","article-title":"Cyber-physical-human systems for mobile robots in energy asset management: current practices and future opportunities","volume":"21","author":"Mitchell","year":"2025","journal-title":"Energy AI"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.2307\/259247","article-title":"Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: defining the principle of who and what really counts","volume":"22","author":"Mitchell","year":"1997","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0066","series-title":"Human Centred Intelligent Systems","first-page":"229","article-title":"Empirical insights into the challenges of implementing digital twins","author":"M\u00f6hring","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0067","unstructured":"National Digital Twin Programme, 2021a. Skills and Competency Framework (Text)."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0068","unstructured":"National Digital Twin Programme, 2021b Developing a Capability enhancement programme."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1108\/IMDS-07-2023-0467","article-title":"Acceptance of digital twins of customer demands for supply chain optimisation: an analysis of three hierarchical digital twin levels","volume":"124","author":"Oehlschl\u00e4ger","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ind. Manag. Data Syst."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.2307\/258610","article-title":"Strategic responses to institutional processes","volume":"16","author":"Oliver","year":"1991","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3390\/informatics10010014","article-title":"Barriers to the adoption of digital twin in the construction industry: a literature review","volume":"10","author":"Opoku","year":"2023","journal-title":"Informatics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0073","series-title":"Handbook of Ehealth Evaluation: An Evidence-Based Approach [Internet]","article-title":"Chapter 9 methods for literature reviews","author":"Par\u00e9","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bushor.2020.08.001","article-title":"Building an organizational digital twin","volume":"63","author":"Parmar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bus. Horiz."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0075","article-title":"A perfect storm: digital twins, cybersecurity, and general contracting firms","volume":"18","author":"P\u00e4rn","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dev. Built Environ."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0076","series-title":"2024 IEEE Smart World Congress (SWC). Presented at the 2024 IEEE Smart World Congress (SWC)","first-page":"2175","article-title":"Treasure Maps and Special effects: the digital twin offering to threat actors","author":"Peck","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compind.2021.103558","article-title":"Implementation of digital twins in the process industry: a systematic literature review of enablers and barriers","volume":"134","author":"Perno","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Ind."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0078","series-title":"Presented at the 2024 2nd International Conference on Cyber Resilience (ICCR)","first-page":"01","article-title":"Am I hired as a firefighter? Exploring the role ambiguity and board\u2019s engagements on job stress and perceived organizational support of CISOs","author":"Piazza","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Praharaj, L., Gupta, D., Gupta, M., 2024. A lightweight edge-CNN-transformer model for detecting coordinated cyber and digital twin attacks in Cooperative Smart farming. Presented at the 2024 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (BigData), pp. 6346\u20136355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/BigData62323.2024.10825128.","DOI":"10.1109\/BigData62323.2024.10825128"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0080","series-title":"Presented at the 2021 IEEE International Conference on Engineering, Technology and Innovation (ICE\/ITMC)","first-page":"1","article-title":"Towards a framework for the classification of digital twins and their applications","author":"Pronost","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0081","article-title":"Building the operational technology (OT) Cybersecurity workforce: what are employers looking for? Journal of Cybersecurity Education","volume":"2024","author":"Ramezan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Res. Pract."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1080\/02678379808256868","article-title":"Achieving a safe culture: theory and practice","volume":"12","author":"Reason","year":"1998","journal-title":"Work Stress."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.2307\/259248","article-title":"Moving beyond dyadic ties: a network theory of stakeholder influences","volume":"22","author":"Rowley","year":"1997","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpe.2023.108888","article-title":"Challenges and countermeasures for digital twin implementation in manufacturing plants: a Delphi study","volume":"261","author":"Saporiti","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Econ."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0085","series-title":"Organizational Culture and Leadership","author":"Schein","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1007\/s42979-023-01937-4","article-title":"Properties and characteristics of digital twins: review of industrial definitions","volume":"4","author":"Schweiger","year":"2023","journal-title":"SN Comput. Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12020120","article-title":"Digital twins in built environments: an investigation of the characteristics, applications, and challenges","volume":"12","author":"Shahzad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Buildings"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26358","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3257171","article-title":"Security analysis of a digital twin framework using probabilistic model checking","volume":"11","author":"Shaikh","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEe Access."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0089","first-page":"36","volume":"4","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Digit. Twin: Orig. Future. Appl. Syst. Innov."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5727","DOI":"10.3390\/app12115727","article-title":"menApplications of Digital Twin across Industries: a review","volume":"12","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1080\/12460125.2023.2197704","article-title":"Designing the literature review for a strong contribution","volume":"33","author":"Snyder","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Decis. Syst."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusres.2019.07.039","article-title":"Literature review as a research methodology: an overview and guidelines","volume":"104","author":"Snyder","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Bus. Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Somsuk, N., Laosirihongthong, T., Samaranayake, P., McLean, M.W., 2025. Enablers for digital Twin adoption: people-process-Technology perspective. Presented at the 2025 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), pp. 0016\u20130021. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/IEEM63636.2025.11357686.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEEM63636.2025.11357686"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su\u00e1rez-Rom\u00e1n, M., Sanz-Rodrigo, M., Mar\u00edn-L\u00f3pez, A., Arroyo, D., 2025. A digital twin threat survey. Big Data and Cognitive Computing 9. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bdcc9100252.","DOI":"10.3390\/bdcc9100252"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compind.2023.103961","article-title":"ENIGMA: an explainable digital twin security solution for cyber\u2013physical systems","volume":"151","author":"Suhail","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Ind."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0096","author":"Suhail","year":"2023","journal-title":"Secur. Attacks Solut. Digit. Twins"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0097","series-title":"Advances in Transdisciplinary Engineering","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3233\/ATDE240892","article-title":"Transdisciplinary perspectives on navigating digital twin adoption","author":"Tooth","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0098","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1177\/1534484305278283","article-title":"Writing integrative literature reviews: guidelines and examples","volume":"4","author":"Torraco","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hum. Resour. Dev. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0099","series-title":"Challenges in Implementing Digital Twins \u2013 a Survey. Presented at the ASME 2022 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference","author":"Trauer","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0100","article-title":"TRIB Roadmap","year":"2026","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Innov. Board"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infsof.2024.107424","article-title":"Stakeholders collaborations, challenges and emerging concepts in digital twin ecosystems","volume":"169","author":"Tripathi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Inf. Softw. Technol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2021.102387","article-title":"Developing a cyber security culture: current practices and future needs","volume":"109","author":"Uchendu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1007\/s12599-021-00727-7","article-title":"Archetypes of digital twins","volume":"64","author":"van der Valk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bus Inf Syst Eng"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0104","author":"van Schalkwyk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Digit. Twin Capab. Period. Table"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0105","series-title":"Security and Trust Considerations for Digital Twin Technology (No. NIST Internal or Interagency Report (NISTIR) 8356)","author":"Voas","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Volkamer, M., Renaud, K., 2013. Mental models \u2013 General introduction and review of their application to Human-centred security. pp. 255\u2013280. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-42001-6_18.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-42001-6_18"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0107","first-page":"36","article-title":"Tania Wallis, Chris Johnson, and Mohamed Khamis, Interorganizational Cooperation in Supply Chain Cybersecurity: a cross-industry study of the effectiveness of the UK implementation of the NIS Directive","volume":"48","author":"Wallis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Inf. Secur.: Int. J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2349","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14082349","article-title":"Opportunities and threats of adopting digital twin in construction projects: a review","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Buildings"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14965","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3263909","article-title":"A survey on digital twins: architecture, enabling technologies, security and privacy, and future prospects","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3342","DOI":"10.3390\/app10103342","article-title":"Digital twin for variation management: a general framework and identification of industrial challenges related to the implementation","volume":"10","author":"W\u00e4rmefjord","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0111","article-title":"Developing data requirements for City-level digital twins: stakeholder perspective","volume":"41","author":"Yan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Manag. Eng."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001_bib0112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zarco, C.G., 2025. A holistic view of digital twin capabilities: from development to achieved value. Presented at the 2025 IEEE Technology and Engineering Management Society (TEMSCON LATAM), pp. 1\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TEMSCONLATAM65810.2025.11238399.","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMSCONLATAM65810.2025.11238399"}],"container-title":["Computers &amp; Security"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S016740482600177X?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S016740482600177X?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T17:16:45Z","timestamp":1783963005000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S016740482600177X"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]},"references-count":110,"alternative-id":["S016740482600177X"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001","relation":{},"ISSN":["0167-4048"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0167-4048","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Organisational cybersecurity challenges in digital twin development: A critical analysis and research directions","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Computers & Security","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cose.2026.105001","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"105001"}}