{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T21:40:46Z","timestamp":1777930846852,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777593600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777593600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,8]],"date-time":"2026-03-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772928000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000288","name":"Royal Society","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000288","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000275","name":"Leverhulme Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000275","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004815","name":"Isaac Newton Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004815","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Ecological Informatics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T16:40:00Z","timestamp":1773765600000},"page":"103699","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Large language models possess some ecological knowledge, but how much?"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"95","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-1991-2324","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filip","family":"Dorm","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3025-3565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joseph","family":"Millard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-9306-4420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Drew","family":"Purves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2598-8652","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Harfoot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5787-5073","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oisin","family":"Mac Aodha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b1","series-title":"Distilling named entity recognition models for endangered species from large language models","author":"Atuhurra","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09678","article-title":"Has the Earth\u2019s sixth mass extinction already arrived?","author":"Barnosky","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2024.102742","article-title":"Large language models overcome the challenges of unstructured text data in ecology","volume":"82","author":"Castro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecol. Inform."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, K., Cramer, M., Soni, S., Bamman, D., 2023. Speak, memory: An archaeology of books known to chatgpt\/gpt-4. In: Proceedings of the 2023 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing. pp. 7312\u20137327.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.emnlp-main.453"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b5","series-title":"ICML","article-title":"Spatial implicit neural representations for global-scale species mapping","author":"Cole","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.14325","article-title":"Harnessing large language models for coding, teaching and inclusion to empower research in ecology and evolution","author":"Cooper","year":"2024","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/ecog.06068","article-title":"Automated synthesis of biodiversity knowledge requires better tools and standardised research output","volume":"2022","author":"Cornford","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, C., Zhang, T., He, Z., Chen, Q., Shi, Y., Xu, Y., Fu, L., Zhang, W., Wang, X., Zhou, C., et al., 2024. K2: A foundation language model for geoscience knowledge understanding and utilization. In: International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining.","DOI":"10.1145\/3616855.3635772"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b9","article-title":"The role of large pre-trained models in ecology and biodiversity conservation: Opportunities and challenges","author":"Doi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Authorea Prepr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b10","series-title":"Enhancing Ecological Knowledge Discovery Using Large Language Models","author":"Domazetoski","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dorm, F., Lange, C., Loarie, S., Mac Aodha, O., 2024. Generating Binary Species Range Maps. In: Computer Vision for Ecology Workshop At ECCV.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-92387-6_1"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elliott, M.J., Fortes, J.A., 2024. Toward Reliable Biodiversity Information Extraction From Large Language Models. In: International Conference on E-Science.","DOI":"10.1109\/e-Science62913.2024.10678666"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b13","series-title":"Multimodal foundation models for zero-shot animal species recognition in camera trap images","author":"Fabian","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2024.0423","article-title":"The changing landscape of text mining: A review of approaches for ecology and evolution","author":"Farrell","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b15","article-title":"Mathematical capabilities of chatgpt","author":"Frieder","year":"2023","journal-title":"NeurIPS Datasets Benchmarks"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b16","series-title":"GeoJSON","author":"GeoJSON.org","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b17","series-title":"Gemini","author":"Google DeepMind","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b18","series-title":"Gemini API documentation","author":"Google DeepMind","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s44185-024-00043-9","article-title":"Testing the reliability of an AI-based large language model to extract ecological information from the scientific literature","author":"Gougherty","year":"2024","journal-title":"Npj Biodivers."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b20","series-title":"NeurIPS","article-title":"Combining observational data and language for species range estimation","author":"Hamilton","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ecolsys-112414-054400","article-title":"Seven shortfalls that beset large-scale knowledge of biodiversity","author":"Hortal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b22","series-title":"IUCN - CMP unified classification of direct threats","author":"IUCN","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b23","series-title":"IUCN red list - API","author":"IUCN","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b24","series-title":"The IUCN red list of threatened species","author":"IUCN","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b25","series-title":"Threats classification scheme (version 3.3)","author":"IUCN","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b26","series-title":"Extracting massive ecological data on state and interactions of species using large language models","author":"Keck","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mallen, A., Asai, A., Zhong, V., Das, R., Khashabi, D., Hajishirzi, H., 2023. When not to trust language models: Investigating effectiveness of parametric and non-parametric memories. In: Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers). pp. 9802\u20139822.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.acl-long.546"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b28","series-title":"Large language models are geographically biased","author":"Manvi","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b29","series-title":"The Twelfth International Conference on Learning Representations","article-title":"GeoLLM: Extracting geospatial knowledge from large language models","author":"Manvi","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/aps3.70005","article-title":"Fully automatic extraction of morphological traits from the web: Utopia or reality?","author":"Marcos","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Plant Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b31","first-page":"131035","article-title":"Vlm4bio: A benchmark dataset to evaluate pretrained vision-language models for trait discovery from biological images","volume":"37","author":"Maruf","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b32","first-page":"17359","article-title":"Locating and editing factual associations in gpt","volume":"35","author":"Meng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b33","article-title":"New frontiers in artificial intelligence for biodiversity research and conservation with multimodal language models","author":"Miao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/ecog.04532","article-title":"Text-analysis reveals taxonomic and geographic disparities in animal pollination literature","volume":"43","author":"Millard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b35","series-title":"GSM-symbolic: Understanding the limitations of mathematical reasoning in large language models","author":"Mirzadeh","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mora-Cross, M., Calderon-Ramirez, S., 2024. Uncertainty Estimation in Large Language Models to Support Biodiversity Conservation. In: Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.naacl-industry.31"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b37","series-title":"ChatGPT","author":"OpenAI","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b38","series-title":"GPT-4 API documentation","author":"OpenAI","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petroni, F., Rockt\u00e4schel, T., Riedel, S., Lewis, P., Bakhtin, A., Wu, Y., Miller, A., 2019. Language models as knowledge bases?. In: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP). pp. 2463\u20132473.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/D19-1250"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b40","series-title":"AI-assisted coding: Experiments with GPT-4","author":"Poldrack","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b41","unstructured":"Roberts, J., L\u00fcddecke, T., Das, S., Han, K., Albanie, S., 2024a. GPT4GEO: How a Language Model Sees the World\u2019s Geography. In: NeurIPS 2023 Foundation Models for Decision Making Workshop."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b42","series-title":"CVPR","article-title":"Charting new territories: Exploring the geographic and geospatial capabilities of multimodal llms","author":"Roberts","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samsi, S., Zhao, D., McDonald, J., Li, B., Michaleas, A., Jones, M., Bergeron, W., Kepner, J., Tiwari, D., Gadepally, V., 2023. From words to watts: Benchmarking the energy costs of large language model inference. In: High Performance Extreme Computing Conference.","DOI":"10.1109\/HPEC58863.2023.10363447"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/inc3.55","article-title":"Large language models debunk fake and sensational wildlife news","author":"Santangeli","year":"2024","journal-title":"Integr. Conserv."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b45","unstructured":"Sastry, S., Xing, X., Dhakal, A., Khanal, S., Ahmad, A., Jacobs, N., 2025. LD-SDM: Language-Driven Hierarchical Species Distribution Modeling. In: Computer Vision for Ecology (CV4E) Workshop, ICCV 2025."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.14341","article-title":"Large language models help facilitate the automated synthesis of information on potential pest controllers","author":"Scheepens","year":"2024","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seabold, S., Perktold, J., 2010. statsmodels: Econometric and statistical modeling with python. In: 9th Python in Science Conference.","DOI":"10.25080\/Majora-92bf1922-011"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/ecy.3344","article-title":"COMBINE: A coalesced mammal database of intrinsic and extrinsic traits","author":"Soria","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12070284","article-title":"Mapping with chatgpt","author":"Tao","year":"2023","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inform."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b50","series-title":"Gemini: A family of highly capable multimodal models","author":"Team","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.13898","article-title":"AVONET: Morphological, ecological and geographical data for all birds","author":"Tobias","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b52","series-title":"H3: A hexagonal hierarchical spatial index","author":"Uber Technologies, Inc.","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699_b53","article-title":"BB-GeoGPT: A framework for learning a large language model for geographic information science","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Inf. Process. Manag."}],"container-title":["Ecological Informatics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1574954126001056?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1574954126001056?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T00:25:44Z","timestamp":1777681544000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1574954126001056"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"references-count":53,"alternative-id":["S1574954126001056"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699","relation":{},"ISSN":["1574-9541"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1574-9541","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Large language models possess some ecological knowledge, but how much?","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Ecological Informatics","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2026.103699","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"103699"}}