{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T12:01:26Z","timestamp":1781092886532,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["22120250312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22120250312"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["72573203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["72573203"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005760","name":"University of Gothenburg","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005760","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013804","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013804","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007439","name":"Jan Wallander and Tom Hedelius Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BFh18-0007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BFh18-0007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007439","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Games and Economic Behavior"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T23:27:29Z","timestamp":1775604449000},"page":"441-461","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Designing Heaven\u2019s will: The job assignment in the Chinese imperial civil service"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"158","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5283-6024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"In\u00e1cio","family":"B\u00f3","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1453-4604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Li","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1257\/000282803322157061","article-title":"School choice: a mechanism design approach","volume":"93","author":"Abdulkadiro\u011flu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. Econ. Rev."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1111\/sjoe.12362","article-title":"Assigning refugees to landlords in sweden: efficient stable maximum matchings","volume":"122","author":"Andersson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scand. J. Econ."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2291","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.2019.3311","article-title":"Design of lotteries and wait-lists for affordable housing allocation","volume":"66","author":"Arnosti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Manage. Sci."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.leaqua.2020.101388","article-title":"How to prevent leadership hubris? comparing competitive selections, lotteries, and their combination","volume":"31","author":"Berger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Leadersh. Q."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3474","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.2022.4528","article-title":"Goals, constraints, and transparently fair assignments: a field study of randomization design in the UEFA champions league","volume":"69","author":"Boczo\u0144","year":"2022","journal-title":"Manage. Sci."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1111\/iere.12600","article-title":"Medieval matching markets","volume":"64","author":"Boerner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Econ. Rev."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0262.2004.00483.x","article-title":"Random matching under dichotomous preferences","volume":"72","author":"Bogomolnaia","year":"2004","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1991","DOI":"10.1086\/694288","article-title":"The design of debt-clearing markets: clearinghouse mechanisms in preindustrial Europe","volume":"125","author":"B\u00f6rner","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Polit. Econ."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1080\/19460170903158081","article-title":"Randomizing Europe: the lottery as a decision-making procedure for policy creation in the EU","volume":"3","author":"Buchstein","year":"2009","journal-title":"Critic. Policy Stud."},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3071","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.20181491","article-title":"Patronage and selection in public sector organizations","volume":"110","author":"Colonnelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. Econ. Rev."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.2307\/2050130","article-title":"The beginnings of bureaucracy in China: the origin of the Hsien","volume":"23","author":"Creel","year":"1964","journal-title":"J. Asian Stud."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0012","series-title":"zhongguo gudai guanliao zhengzhi zhidu yanjiu (A study on the bureaucratic political system of ancient China)","first-page":"222","article-title":"Zuzong zhifa yu guanliao zhidu: Song (The ancestors\u2019 family instructions and the bureaucratic political system: Song)","author":"Deng","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geb.2019.03.009","article-title":"Matching with waiting times: the German entry-level labor market for lawyers","volume":"115","author":"Dimakopoulos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Games Econ. Behav."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0014","series-title":"Da qing huidian (The Collected Statutes of Qing)","volume":"Vol. 44","author":"DQHD","year":"1886"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2457","DOI":"10.1086\/699974","article-title":"Reserve design: unintended consequences and the demise of Boston\u2019s walk zones","volume":"126","author":"Dur","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Polit. Econ."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0016","series-title":"A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China","author":"Elman","year":"2000"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0017","series-title":"Online Bipartite Matching: A Survey and a New Problem","author":"Feng","year":"2014"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0018","series-title":"Songdai guanzhi cidian (A Dictionary of the Song Civil Service System)","author":"Gong","year":"1997"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0019","first-page":"525","article-title":"Contract enforceability and economic institutions in early trade: the maghribi traders\u2019 coalition","volume":"83","author":"Greif","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. Econ. Rev."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1086\/261953","article-title":"Coordination, commitment, and enforcement: the case of the merchant guild","volume":"102","author":"Greif","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Polit. Econ."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0021","article-title":"Ri zhi lu (Records of daily knowledge)","author":"Gu","year":"2006"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0022","series-title":"Election by Lot at Athens","author":"Headlam","year":"1891"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0023","series-title":"Fuhui quanshu (A Complete Book Concerning Happiness and Benevolence)","author":"Huang","year":"1694"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1002\/nav.3800020109","article-title":"The hungarian method for the assignment problem","volume":"2","author":"Kuhn","year":"1955","journal-title":"Naval Res. Logist. Quart."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0025","article-title":"Libu zhizhang (Administrative responsibilities of the Ministry of Personnel)","author":"Zhang","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1007\/s00199-019-01180-0","article-title":"An axiomatic analysis of the papal conclave","volume":"69","author":"Mackenzie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Econ. Theory"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0027","series-title":"Ming huidian (Collected Statutes of Ming)","volume":"Vol. 2\u201313","author":"MHD","year":"1587"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0028","series-title":"1739 Ming shi (History of Ming)","volume":"Vol. 71","author":"MS","year":"2026"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0029","series-title":"Mingdai wenguan quanxuan zhidu yanjiu (A study on the appointments of civil service system in Ming dynasty)","author":"Pan","year":"2005"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1162\/rest_a_01252","article-title":"Immigration lottery design: engineered and coincidental consequences of H-1B reforms","volume":"107","author":"Pathak","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Econ. Stat."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3999","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.2022.00930","article-title":"Fair allocation of vaccines, ventilators and antiviral treatments: leaving no ethical value behind in healthcare rationing","volume":"70","author":"Pathak","year":"2024","journal-title":"Manage. Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0032","series-title":"Qin ding li bu quan xuan ze li (Rules and Regulations for the Appointments by the Ministry of Civil Appointments)","volume":"Vol. 43","author":"QDLBQXZL","year":"1886"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1086\/261272","article-title":"The evolution of the labor market for medical interns and residents: a case study in game theory","volume":"92","author":"Roth","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Polit. Econ."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1162\/0033553041382157","article-title":"Kidney exchange","volume":"119","author":"Roth","year":"2004","journal-title":"Q. J. Econ."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0035","series-title":"1343 Song shi (History of Song)","volume":"Vol. 158","author":"SS","year":"2026"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0036","series-title":"Wanli yehuo bian (Unofficial matters from the Wanli reign)","author":"Shen","year":"1619"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1086\/669915","article-title":"Bidding for army career specialties: improving the ROTC branching mechanism","volume":"121","author":"S\u00f6nmez","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Polit. Econ."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA10570","article-title":"Matching with (branch-of-choice) contracts at the united states military academy","volume":"81","author":"S\u00f6nmez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA17788","article-title":"Affirmative action in india via vertical, horizontal, and overlapping reservations","volume":"90","author":"S\u00f6nmez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0040","series-title":"Chunming meng yulu (A Collective Memories of Ming)","volume":"24","author":"Sun","year":"1777"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0041","series-title":"Working paper","article-title":"Matching in the Civil Service: A Market Design Approach to Public Administration and Development","author":"Thakur","year":"2020"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1111\/jels.12248","article-title":"Randomness pre-considered: recognizing and accounting for \u201cde-randomizing\u201d events when utilizing random judicial assignment","volume":"17","author":"Thorley","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Empir. Leg. Stud."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0043","series-title":"Qingdai zhiguan renshi yanjiu (A study on the government personnel in Qing dynasty)","author":"Wang","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0044","series-title":"The District Magistrate in Late Imperial China","author":"Watt","year":"1972"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0045","series-title":"Qingdai renguan zhi jiguan huibi zhidu (Avoidance of Home Region in Qing Appointments)","volume":"3","author":"Wei","year":"1992"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Will, P.-\u00c9., 2002. Creation, conflict, and routinization: the appointment of officials by drawing lots, 1594\u20131700. Ming Qing Yanjiu, 73\u2013121.","DOI":"10.1163\/24684791-90000418"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0047","series-title":"Wanli shuchao (A collection of the Wanli coourt debates)","volume":"Vol. 21","author":"Wu","year":"1609"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0048","series-title":"Zhongguo de juannazhidu yu shehui (The title purchase institution and society in China)","author":"Wu","year":"2013"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3170","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.20171339","article-title":"The costs of patronage: evidence from the British Empire","volume":"108","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. Econ. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0050","unstructured":"Yao, G., 1408. Yongle da dian (Yongle Ecyclopedia). Vol. 14626."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013_bib0051","series-title":"Qingdai wenguan xuanren zhidu yanjiu (A Study on the Appointments of Civil Service System in Qing Dynast)","author":"Zhang","year":"2010"}],"container-title":["Games and Economic Behavior"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0899825626000692?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0899825626000692?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T11:12:22Z","timestamp":1781089942000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0899825626000692"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"references-count":51,"alternative-id":["S0899825626000692"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013","relation":{},"ISSN":["0899-8256"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0899-8256","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Designing Heaven\u2019s will: The job assignment in the Chinese imperial civil service","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Games and Economic Behavior","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.geb.2026.03.013","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}