{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T18:11:57Z","timestamp":1775067117132,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Information Processing &amp; Management"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T14:41:29Z","timestamp":1768574489000},"page":"104613","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["An information processing framework for education: Supporting automatic question generation with NLP to minimize human intervention"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"63","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1039-8358","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Memoona","family":"Saleem","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9968-0330","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zahoor Ur","family":"Rehman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9068-2337","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raja Hashim","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4689-4201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ujala","family":"Akmal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9639-6641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali Zeeshan","family":"Ijaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0645-9253","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raja Manzar","family":"Abbas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13521","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-023-10466-8","article-title":"Deep learning modelling techniques: Current progress, applications, advantages, and challenges","volume":"56","author":"Ahmed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence Review"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.3390\/info14100526","article-title":"Automatic construction of educational knowledge graphs: A word embedding-based approach","volume":"14","author":"Ain","year":"2023","journal-title":"Information"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.3390\/info16070522","article-title":"Radar#: An ensemble approach for radicalization detection in arabic social media using hybrid deep learning and transformer models","volume":"16","author":"Al-Shawakfa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Information"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81793","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3382836","article-title":"Emo-SL framework: Emoji sentiment lexicon using text-based features and machine learning for sentiment analysis","volume":"12","author":"Alfreihat","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sapharm.2023.05.016","article-title":"The emergent role of artificial intelligence, natural learning processing, and large language models in higher education and research","volume":"19","author":"Alqahtani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlp.2024.100101","article-title":"Towards effective teaching assistants: From intent-based chatbots to LLM-powered teaching assistants","volume":"8","author":"Alsafari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Natural Language Processing Journal"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0007","series-title":"International conference on innovative techniques and applications of artificial intelligence","first-page":"437","article-title":"Automating question generation from educational text","author":"Bhowmick","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0008","series-title":"International conference on artificial intelligence in education","first-page":"327","article-title":"Scalable educational question generation with pre-trained language models","author":"Bulathwela","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0009","unstructured":"Bulathwela, S., Muse, H., & Yilmaz, E. (2023b). Scalable educational question generation with pre-trained language models. arXiv preprint arXiv: 2305.07871, 10.48550\/arXiv.2305.07871."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0010","series-title":"Proceedings of the international AAAI conference on web and social media","first-page":"1","article-title":"Learningq: A large-scale dataset for educational question generation","volume":"vol. 12","author":"Chen","year":"2018"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0011","series-title":"2019 Fifteenth international conference on information processing (ICINPRO)","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ontoquest: An ontological strategy for automatic question generation for e-assessment using static and dynamic knowledge","author":"Deepak","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elkins, S., Kochmar, E., Cheung, J. C. K., & Serban, I. (2024). How teachers can use large language models and bloom\u2019s taxonomy to create educational quizzes. arXiv preprint arXiv: 2401.05914. 10.48550\/arXiv.2401.05914.","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v38i21.30353"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1007\/s10115-023-01966-8","article-title":"A template-based approach for question answering over knowledge bases","volume":"66","author":"Formica","year":"2024","journal-title":"Knowledge and Information Systems"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2025.104212","article-title":"Cooking with context: Leveraging context for procedural question answering","volume":"62","author":"Frummet","year":"2025","journal-title":"Information Processing & Management"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1007\/s10579-023-09672-1","article-title":"Evaluation of a rule-based approach to automatic factual question generation using syntactic and semantic analysis","volume":"57","author":"Ga\u0161par","year":"2023","journal-title":"Language Resources and Evaluation"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2025.104225","article-title":"Papereval: A universal, quantitative, and explainable paper evaluation method powered by a multi-agent system","volume":"62","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Information Processing & Management"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.websem.2023.100797","article-title":"Semantichadith: An ontology-driven knowledge graph for the hadith corpus","volume":"78","author":"Kamran","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Web Semantics"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-023-00333-6","article-title":"A novel framework for the generation of multiple choice question stems using semantic and machine-learning techniques","volume":"34","author":"Kumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-019-00186-y","article-title":"A systematic review of automatic question generation for educational purposes","volume":"30","author":"Kurdi","year":"2020","journal-title":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.3991\/ijet.v19i06.49829","article-title":"Integration of AI and metaheuristics in educational software: A hybrid approach to exercise generation","volume":"19","author":"L\u00e1ng","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0021","series-title":"Findings of the association for computational linguistics ACL 2024","first-page":"4715","article-title":"Planning first, question second: An LLM-guided method for controllable question generation","author":"Li","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0022","series-title":"Proceedings of the 19th international conference on computational linguistics (COLING)","first-page":"1","article-title":"Learning question classifiers","author":"Li","year":"2002"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0023","series-title":"Proceedings of the 15th international learning analytics and knowledge conference","first-page":"148","article-title":"A novel approach to scalable and automatic topic-controlled question generation in education","author":"Li","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2023.101970","article-title":"Reimagining multi-criterion decision making by data-driven methods based on machine learning: A literature review","author":"Liao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Information Fusion"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0025","article-title":"Automatic question-answer pairs generation using pre-trained large language models in higher education","volume":"6","author":"Ling","year":"2024","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0026","series-title":"Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial intelligence","first-page":"8496","article-title":"Refnet: A reference-aware network for background based conversation","volume":"vol. 34","author":"Meng","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0027","series-title":"Proceedings of the international semantic web conference (ISWC)","first-page":"247","article-title":"Text2KGBench: A benchmark for ontology-driven knowledge graph generation from text","author":"Mihindukulasooriya","year":"2023"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3605943","article-title":"Recent advances in natural language processing via large pre-trained language models: A survey","volume":"56","author":"Min","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Computing Surveys"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0029","series-title":"European conference on technology enhanced learning","first-page":"229","article-title":"Assessing the quality of multiple-choice questions using gpt-4 and rule-based methods","author":"Moore","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s13748-023-00295-9","article-title":"Automatic question generation: A review of methodologies, datasets, evaluation metrics, and applications","volume":"12","author":"Mulla","year":"2023","journal-title":"Progress in Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81323","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3193938","article-title":"Ai-based personalized e-learning systems: Issues, challenges, and solutions","volume":"10","author":"Murtaza","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0032","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2023 international conference on frontiers of information technology (FIT)","first-page":"220","article-title":"Performance evaluation of popular deep neural networks for neural machine translation","author":"Naeem","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0033","series-title":"Proceedings of the asiaCALL international conference","first-page":"20","article-title":"Teachers\u2019 perspectives on AI-driven quillionz for generating EFL reading comprehension quizzes","volume":"vol. 6","author":"Nguyen","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0034","unstructured":"Noorbakhsh, K., Chandler, J., Karimi, P., Alizadeh, M., & Balakrishnan, H. (2025). Savaal: Scalable concept-driven question generation to enhance human learning. arXiv preprint arXiv: 2502.12477. 10.48550\/arXiv.2502.12477."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0035","series-title":"International conference on machine learning, advances in computing, renewable energy and communication","first-page":"257","article-title":"Ai-based question paper analysis and generator with authentication","author":"Patil","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajpurkar, P., Jia, R., & Liang, P. (2018). Know what you don\u2019t know: Unanswerable questions for SQuAD. arXiv preprint arXiv: 1806.03822. 10.48550\/arXiv.1806.03822.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P18-2124"},{"issue":"16","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21295","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12717-9","article-title":"Towards automatic question generation using pre-trained model in academic field for bahasa indonesia","volume":"29","author":"Suhartono","year":"2024","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0038","series-title":"Proceedings of the 23rd annual international ACM SIGIR conference on research and development in information retrieval (SIGIR)","first-page":"200","article-title":"Building a question answering test collection","author":"Voorhees","year":"2000"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8843","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-023-12159-9","article-title":"A method for generating course test questions based on natural language processing and deep learning","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3708985","article-title":"User behavior simulation with large language model-based agents","volume":"43","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Information Systems"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., & Baraniuk, R. (2023). Multiqg-ti: Towards question generation from multi-modal sources. arXiv preprint arXiv: 2307.04643.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.bea-1.55"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18987","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-023-16199-8","article-title":"Graph-based extractive text summarization based on single document","volume":"83","author":"Yadav","year":"2024","journal-title":"Multimedia Tools and Applications"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.32604\/cmc.2023.031907","article-title":"Intrusion detection based on bidirectional long short-term memory with attention mechanism","volume":"74","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computers, Materials & Continua"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0044","series-title":"Proceedings of the 26th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on research and development in information retrieval","first-page":"26","article-title":"Question classification using support vector machines","author":"Zhang","year":"2003"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2024.104044","article-title":"Towards human-like questioning: Knowledge base question generation with bias-corrected reinforcement learning from human feedback","volume":"62","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Information Processing & Management"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613_bib0046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2025.104200","article-title":"Losdf: A logical optimization and semantic decoupling framework for question answering in multi-party conversations","volume":"62","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Information Processing & Management"}],"container-title":["Information Processing &amp; Management"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0306457326000051?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0306457326000051?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T23:49:52Z","timestamp":1773186592000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0306457326000051"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["S0306457326000051"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613","relation":{},"ISSN":["0306-4573"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0306-4573","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"An information processing framework for education: Supporting automatic question generation with NLP to minimize human intervention","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Information Processing & Management","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104613","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"104613"}}