{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T15:49:32Z","timestamp":1776872972776,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777593600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777593600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774483200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012905","name":"Department of Science and Technology of Shandong Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012905","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007129","name":"Shandong Province Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZR2022MC115"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2022MC115"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007129","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["NeuroImage"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T03:55:40Z","timestamp":1774583740000},"page":"121894","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Learning from feedback is independent from feedback visibility, but supported by aperiodic neural activity"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"331","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0839-4610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"DanDan","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6210-4945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shiwei","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1284-9568","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yanliang","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Lorenza","family":"Colzato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4731-5125","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernhard","family":"Hommel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.640270","article-title":"Electrophysiological examination of feedback-based learning in 8-11-year-old children","volume":"12","author":"Arbel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00385","article-title":"The good, the bad, or the useful? The examination of the relationship between the feedback-related negativity (FRN) and long-term learning outcomes","volume":"25","author":"Arbel","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2008.06138.x","article-title":"Learning-related changes in reward expectancy are reflected in the feedback-related negativity","volume":"27","author":"Bellebaum","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721412438463","article-title":"Human reward pursuit: from rudimentary to higher-level functions","volume":"21","author":"Bijleveld","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.12682","article-title":"Data-driven region-of-interest selection without inflating type I error rate","volume":"54","author":"Brooks","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2014.04.012","article-title":"Frontal theta as a mechanism for cognitive control","volume":"18","author":"Cavanagh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2010.21456","article-title":"Feedback-relatedNegativity codes prediction error but not behavioral adjustment duringProbabilistic reversal learning","volume":"23","author":"Chase","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2014.06.004","article-title":"A neural microcircuit for cognitive conflict detection and signaling","volume":"37","author":"Cohen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106297","article-title":"Non-bivalent psychopathology: rethinking mental disorders through metacontrol","volume":"176","author":"Colzato","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"issue":"48","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10338","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0457-18.2018","article-title":"How the level of reward awareness changes the computational and electrophysiological signatures of reinforcement learning","volume":"38","author":"Correa","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009","article-title":"EEGLAB: an open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis","volume":"134","author":"Delorme","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0192-20.2020","article-title":"Electrophysiological frequency band ratio measures conflate periodic and aperiodic neural activity","volume":"7","author":"Donoghue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eneuro"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1537","article-title":"Cortical responses to invisible objects in the human dorsal and ventral pathways","volume":"8","author":"Fang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2014.04.003","article-title":"Scale-free brain activity: past, present, and future","volume":"18","author":"He","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.109.4.679","article-title":"The neural basis of human error processing: reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity","volume":"109","author":"Holroyd","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.09.021","article-title":"The research domain criteria framework: the case for anterior cingulate cortex","volume":"71","author":"Holroyd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-024-00353-6","article-title":"No convincing evidence for the independence of persistence and flexibility","volume":"3","author":"Hommel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.01.009","article-title":"The social transmission of metacontrol policies: mechanisms underlying the interpersonal transfer of persistence and flexibility","volume":"81","author":"Hommel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bhae185","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhae185","article-title":"Tracing conflict-induced cognitive-control adjustments over time using aperiodic EEG activity","volume":"34","author":"Jia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2025.121341","article-title":"Periodic and aperiodic neural activity contribute to the microgenesis of learning from mistakes","volume":"317","author":"Jia","year":"2025","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"issue":"20","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2006.08.084","article-title":"Cortical responses to invisible faces: dissociating subsystems for facial-information processing","volume":"16","author":"Jiang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2011.07.059","article-title":"The feedback-related negativity is modulated by feedback probability in observational learning","volume":"225","author":"Kobza","year":"2011","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1997.9.6.788","article-title":"Event-related brain potentials following incorrect feedback in a time-estimation task: evidence for a \u201cgeneric\u201d neural system for error detection","volume":"9","author":"Miltner","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"issue":"5826","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1140459","article-title":"How the brain translates money into force: a neuroimaging study of subliminal motivation","volume":"316","author":"Pessiglione","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2007.04.019","article-title":"Updating P300: an integrative theory of P3a and P3b","volume":"118","author":"Polich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol. : Off. J. Int. Fed. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2005.12.012","article-title":"Neuropsychology and neuropharmacology of P3a and P3b","volume":"60","author":"Polich","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol.: Off. J. Int. Organ. Psychophysiol."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.83.5.880","article-title":"The dominant eye","volume":"83","author":"Porac","year":"1976","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.3390\/g12030062","article-title":"Champ versus Chump: viewing an opponent\u2019s face engages attention but not reward systems","volume":"12","author":"Redden","year":"2021","journal-title":"Games"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2012.00304","article-title":"Event-related potential studies of outcome processing and feedback-guided learning","volume":"6","author":"San Mart\u00edn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000006","article-title":"A neural reward prediction error revealed by a meta-analysis of ERPs using great grand averages","volume":"141","author":"Sambrook","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. bull."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2013.04.004","article-title":"Fearless dominance and reduced feedback-related negativity amplitudes in a time-estimation task \u2013 Further neuroscientific evidence for dual-process models of psychopathy","volume":"93","author":"Schulreich","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1500","article-title":"Continuous flash suppression reduces negative afterimages","volume":"8","author":"Tsuchiya","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"issue":"38","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13257","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2332-14.2015","article-title":"Age-related changes in 1\/f neural electrophysiological noise","volume":"35","author":"Voytek","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"issue":"47","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19048","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1117189108","article-title":"Modulation of the feedback-related negativity by instruction and experience","volume":"108","author":"Walsh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0035","first-page":"3","article-title":"Standardization and assessment of college students' facial expression of emotion","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chin. J. Clin. Psychol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0036","article-title":"Aperiodic neural activity reflects metacontrol in task-switching","volume":"14","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-013-0241-z","article-title":"A new perspective on human reward research: how consciously and unconsciously perceived reward information influences performance","volume":"14","author":"Zedelius","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2012.00029","article-title":"Brain responses in evaluating feedback stimuli with a social dimension","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894_bib0039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7941","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhad089","article-title":"Aperiodic neural activity reflects metacontrol","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"}],"container-title":["NeuroImage"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1053811926002107?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1053811926002107?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T14:53:47Z","timestamp":1776869627000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1053811926002107"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"references-count":39,"alternative-id":["S1053811926002107"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894","relation":{},"ISSN":["1053-8119"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1053-8119","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Learning from feedback is independent from feedback visibility, but supported by aperiodic neural activity","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"NeuroImage","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2026.121894","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"121894"}}