{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,13]],"date-time":"2025-05-13T16:28:03Z","timestamp":1747153683463},"reference-count":152,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1999,1,1]],"date-time":"1999-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":915148800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Government Information Quarterly"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,1]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/s0740-624x(99)80025-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,7,25]],"date-time":"2002-07-25T14:18:40Z","timestamp":1027606720000},"page":"203-240","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Implementing the European union data protection directive 1995 in UK law: The data protection act 1998"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Andrew","family":"Charlesworth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib1","unstructured":"The Data Protection Act 1998 refers throughout only to the masculine gender (e.g., he and his). This article, simply on the grounds of brevity and clarity when dealing with a complex area of law, has done the same. The exception to this rule is any reference to the Data Protection Registrar and Data Protection Commissioner (the former post is currently held by Elizabeth France, who will take up the latter post when the Act finally comes into force), which will refer to the female gender (e.g., she and her). UK Data Protection Act, 1998, Chapter 29, London, The Stationery Office Ltd."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib2","unstructured":"OJ 1995 No L. 281 p. 31. Available: http:\/\/www2.echo.lu\/legal\/en\/dataprot\/directiv\/directiv.html."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib3","unstructured":"By October 23, 1998, Greece, Portugal, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Italy had implemented the Directive, although the latter three still required the adoption of additional rules in order for their data protection regimes to be fully functional. Implementing laws were under consideration by the Parliaments of all other Member States, except Germany, France, and Luxembourg."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib4","unstructured":"Data Protection Act 1984, Chapter 35, London, The Stationery Office Ltd Available, http:\/\/www.hmso.gov.uk\/acts\/actsl984\/1984035.htm. This is the Act as it was originally enacted and subsequent amendments are not shown."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib5","unstructured":"Human Rights Act 1998, Chapter 42, London, The Stationery Office Ltd Available, http:\/\/www.hmso.gov.uk\/acts\/actsl998\/19980042.htm."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib6","year":"1998"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib7_1","first-page":"31","author":"Wacks","year":"1989"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib7_2","first-page":"49","author":"Cate","year":"1997"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib8_1","unstructured":"The Interception of Communications Act 1985 was adopted following the case of Malone v United Kingdom (1984) 7 EHRR 14, where the lack of an acceptable legal regime for phonetapping was held by the European Court of Human Rights to result in a violation of Article 8 of the European Convention of Human Rights by the UK authorities. The Court's judgment, however, only required the UK government to provide such a legal regime, and gave no guidance as to its content."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib8_2","first-page":"48","author":"Ewing","year":"1990"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib9","unstructured":"Wacks, Personal Information, pp. 269\u2013291."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib11_1","unstructured":"Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ETS No 005) as amended by Protocol No. 11 (ETS No. 155) of May 11, 1994."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib12_1","first-page":"43","author":"Lloyd","year":"1997"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib12_2","first-page":"45","author":"Swire","year":"1998"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib13","unstructured":"The exceptions being Ireland, Italy, and the UK."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib14","year":"1972"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib15_1","article-title":"Computers and Privacy","author":"Home Office","year":"1975"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib15_2","article-title":"Computers: Safeguards for Privacy","year":"1975"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib16","year":"1978"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib17","unstructured":"Lloyd, Information Technology Law, 2nd ed., p 43."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib18","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib19","article-title":"Convention for the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data","year":"1981"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib20","series-title":"Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Data Flows of Personal Data","year":"1980"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib21","author":"Home Office","year":"1982"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib22_1","first-page":"747","article-title":"Data Protection","volume":"22","author":"Jenner","year":"1985","journal-title":"Chemistry and Industry"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib22_2","series-title":"Privacy in the Information Age","author":"Smith","year":"1994"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib24","first-page":"12","author":"Office of the Data Protection Registrar","year":"1995"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib25_1","first-page":"22","author":"Office of the Data Protection Registrar","year":"1995"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib26","series-title":"Data Protection: A Current Perspective","author":"Jay","year":"1994"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib28","unstructured":"Smith, \u201cPrivacy in the Information Age.\u201d"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib30","unstructured":"R v Brown [1996] 2 WLR 203 (HL)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib31","article-title":"Commentary on R v Brown","author":"Gaskill","year":"1996","journal-title":"Masons Computer Law Reports"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib35","author":"Bainbridge","year":"1996"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib36","unstructured":"COM (90) 314 final."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib37","unstructured":"OJ C311 2711.92."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib38","unstructured":"See Bainbridge, EC Data Protection Directive, p 32."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib39","unstructured":"For fuller analysis of the Directive see Ibid; Cate, Privacy in the Information Age, pp. 32\u201348."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib40","unstructured":"Art. 3 (1)\u2013(2), DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib41","unstructured":"Art. 2 (a), DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib42","unstructured":"An:. 2 (b), DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib43","unstructured":"Art. 2 (c), DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib44","unstructured":"Art. 8, DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib45","unstructured":"Arts. 10\u201312, DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Art. 14, DPD, (1995).","DOI":"10.1215\/10757163-3-1-14"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib47","unstructured":"Art. 15, DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib48","unstructured":"Art. 9, DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib49","unstructured":"Art. 28, DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib50","unstructured":"Arts. 22-24, DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib51","unstructured":"Arts. 25 & 26, DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib52","author":"Office of the Data Protection Registrar","year":"1996"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib53_1","unstructured":"See, for example, the British Computer Society Data Protection Committee response to the Home Office Consultation Paper on the EC Data Protection Directive 95\/46\/EC. Available: The Campaign for Freedom of Information Response to Home Office. Consultation on EC Data Protection Directive (95\/46\/EC). Available: The UCISA Response to the Home Office Consultation Paper on the EC Data Protection Directive (95\/46\/EC). Available."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib55","series-title":"The Queen's Speech on the Opening of Parliament","year":"1997"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib56","author":"Home Office","year":"1997"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib58","unstructured":"7.5 Sections and 16 Schedules compared to 43 Sections and 4 Schedules."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib59","series-title":"EU Data Protection Directive\u2014Preparing for the New Law","author":"The Office of the Data Protection Registrar","year":"1998"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib61_1","author":"Home Office","year":"1998"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib61_2","author":"Home Office","year":"1998"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib62","unstructured":"s.1. DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib63","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib64","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib65","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib66","first-page":"c467","volume":"Vol 587","author":"Hansard","year":"1998","journal-title":"Official Report, House of Lords"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib67","unstructured":"See The Office of the Data Protection Registrar, An Introduction to the Data Protection Act 1998, Chapter 2 (Definitions), section 1. Available: http:\/\/www.open.gov.uk\/dpr\/chpt2.htm."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib68","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib69","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib70","unstructured":"See http:\/\/www.eds.com."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib71","unstructured":"R v Brown [1996] 2 WLR 203 (HL)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib72","unstructured":"s.1(2)(a), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib73","unstructured":"s.1(2)(b), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib74","unstructured":"Art. 8(1), DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib75","author":"Second Sitting of Standing Committee D","year":"1998"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib76","unstructured":"s.2(c), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib77","unstructured":"For the definition of trade union membership in the UK, see Trade Union anil Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, s. l."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib78","first-page":"40","author":"Second Sitting of Standing Committee D","year":"1998","journal-title":"Data Protection Bill"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schedule 2, DPA, (1998).","DOI":"10.1016\/S1365-6937(98)90015-6"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib80","unstructured":"Schedule 3, DPA, (1998)\u2014The conditions for processing sensitive data."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib82","unstructured":"s.4(4), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib83","unstructured":"s.56, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib84","unstructured":"s.57, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib85","unstructured":"s. 10(1), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib86","unstructured":"s. 10(2), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib87","unstructured":"s. 10(3), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib88","unstructured":"s.l l, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib89","unstructured":"s. 11(3), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib90","unstructured":"Although such processing was regulated to some extent by the 1984 Act, see Equifax Europe Ltd v Data Protection Registrar (unreported, Data Protection Tribunal, February 28, 1992)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib91","unstructured":"s.7(1)(d), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib92","unstructured":"s. 12, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib93","unstructured":"s. l2(6)\u2013(7), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib94","unstructured":"s. 14, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib95","unstructured":"s. 13, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib96","unstructured":"s. 27, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib97","unstructured":"s. 28, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib99","unstructured":"s. 29, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib100","unstructured":"s. 31, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib101","unstructured":"s. 33, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib102","unstructured":"s. 34. DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib103","unstructured":"s. 30, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib104","unstructured":"s. 38, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib105","unstructured":"Art. 9, DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib106","unstructured":"s. 3 & s.32, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib107","unstructured":"s. 32 (1)(a)\u2013(b), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib108","unstructured":"s. 32 (6), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib109_1","unstructured":"For example, a Web site such as \u201cThe Drudge Report,\u201d the Internet based e-zine which played a small, but important, role in proceedings leading up to the U.S. Presidential impeachment hearings would seem to tit these criteria comfortably. Available"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib110","unstructured":"Art. 9, DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib111","unstructured":"s.32(1)(b), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib112","unstructured":"s.40, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib113","unstructured":"s.40(1)(b), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib114","unstructured":"s.40(3), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib115","unstructured":"s.40(5), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib116","unstructured":"s.40(6), DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib117","unstructured":"S.41, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib118","unstructured":"s.43, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib119","unstructured":"s.44, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib121","unstructured":"s.42, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib122","unstructured":"s.45, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib123","unstructured":"See http:\/\/www.open.gov.uk\/dpr\/guidance.htm for a selection of guidance documentation for various sectors e.g., Data Protection Guidance for Franchisees & Data Protection Guidance for Credit Brokers and Arrangers."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib125","unstructured":"s.51, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib126","unstructured":"s.53, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib127","unstructured":"s.55, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib128","unstructured":"s.59, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib129","unstructured":"Art. 28(7), DPD, (1995)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib130","author":"Office of the Data Protection Registrar","year":"1998","journal-title":"Data Protection Bill: Criminal Disclosures by the Commissioner's Staff"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib131","author":"Cabinet Office","year":"1997"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib132","unstructured":"s.63, DPA, (1998)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib133","author":"Office of the Data Protection Registrar","year":"1997","journal-title":"Comments of the Data Protection Registrar on \u201cData Protection: The Government's Proposals\u201d"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib135","unstructured":"Ibid., para. 20."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib136","first-page":"1098","volume":"Vol 587","year":"1998","journal-title":"Official Report, House of Lords"},{"key":"#cr-split#-10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib137.1","unstructured":"See, for example, David G Post, \u201cAnarchy, State, and the Internet: An Essay on Law-Making in Cyberspace,\u201d The Journal of Online Law (1995) art. 3, Available: http:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/jol\/post.html;"},{"key":"#cr-split#-10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib137.2","unstructured":"Dan L. Burk, \u201cJurisdiction in a World Without Borders\u201d Virginia Journal of Law and Technology, 1 (1997): 3 (http:\/\/vjolt.student.virginia.edu\/graphics\/vol1\/home_art3.html); David R. Johnson & David G. Post, \u201cLaw And Borders\u2014The Rise of Law in Cyberspace.\u201d Available: http:\/\/www.cli.org\/X0025_LBFIN.html."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib138","unstructured":"David R. Johnson & David G. Post \u201cLaw and Borders\u2014The Rise of Law in Cyberspace.\u201d"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib139_1","unstructured":"See"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib140_1","unstructured":"For a more comprehensive examination of the project, see the following publications: J.M. Reagle Jr., P3P and Privacy on the Web FAQ Version: 2.0.1. Available J.M. Reagle Jr., & L.F. Cranor. The Platform for Privacy Preferences P3P Note Draft, (July 31, 1998). Available J.M. Reagle Jr., & L.F. Cranor, Designing a Social Protocol: Lessons Learned from the Platform for Privacy Preferences W3C Note, (September 30, 1997). Available M. Marchiori & D. Jaye, Platform for Privacy Preferences (P3P) Syntax Specification W3C Working Draft, (July 2, 1998). Available"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib141","unstructured":"Certainly, the initial European attitude remains skeptical. See Working Party on the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data, Opinion 1\/98, Platform for Privacy Preferences (P3P) and the Open Profiling Standard (OPS) (June 16, 1998). Available: http:\/\/ europa.eu.int\/comm\/dg15\/en\/media\/dataprot\/wpdocs\/wp 11en.htm."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib142","year":"1998"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib143","unstructured":"For example, Swire & Litan, None of Your Business, p. 3."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib145_1","unstructured":"It has been suggested by both Canadian and U.S. commentators that the EU Commission and the advisory body set up by the Directive, the Working Party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data have been particularly obdurate as regards their attitude towards alternative means of obtaining personal data protection, such as by contract. See Swire & Litan, None of Your Business, p. 41; David H. Flaherty, Computers and Privacy: How to Regulate the Private Sector (Montreal: University of Montreal, 1992). Available"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib146","unstructured":"Cate, Privacy in the Information Age, p. 99."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib147","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib148","first-page":"330","author":"Ellen Alderman","year":"1995"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib149_1","unstructured":"5 US.C. 552(a)"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib150","unstructured":"Robert Gellman, \u201cWill EU Sanction Transatlantic File Transfers?,\u201d DM News [a weekly newspaper] (February 16, 1998), pp. 14. 45."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib151","unstructured":"Patrick Birkinshaw, Freedom of Information, 2nd ed. (London: Butterworths, 1996) p. 62."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib152","unstructured":"5 U.S.C. 552(a)(b) 1-12."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib153","unstructured":"Cate, Privacy in the Information Age, p. 78."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib154","first-page":"98","author":"Paul M","year":"1996","journal-title":"Data Privacy Law: A Study of United States Data Protection"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib157","unstructured":"Ibid., p. 100."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib159_1","unstructured":"For example, Internet Alliance, Privacy Guidelines, Principles on Notice and Choice Procedures for Online Information Collection and Distribution by Online Operators (October 1998). Available:"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib161_1","unstructured":"Both Cate, Privacy in the Information Age, and Swire & Litan, None of Your Business, oppose that approach. Similar sentiments are expressed by Ellen M. Kirsh, David W. Phillips, & Donna E. McIntyre, \u201cRecommendations for the Evolution of Netlaw: Protecting Privacy in a Digital Age,\u201d Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 2(2) (1996)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib162_1","unstructured":"See TRUSTe: Frequently Asked Questions"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib163","unstructured":"See http:\/\/www.ftc.gov\/opa\/1998\/9808\/geocitie.htm for details of the consent order. Interestingly, neither GeoCities nor TRUSTe appear to mention the matter on their respective home pages."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib164","unstructured":"Lillian R. BeVier \u201cInformation about Individuals in the Hands of the Government: Some Reflections on Mechanisms for Provacy Protection,\u201d William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal, 4 (1995): 506 cited in Cale, Privacy in the Information Age, p. 125."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0740-624X(99)80025-2_bib165_1","unstructured":"Canada is in the process of passing legislation that will meet the data protection standards required by the Directive. See Bill C-54, The Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Bill, introduced into the House of Commons of Canada, October 1. 1998. 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