{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T13:07:52Z","timestamp":1773407272793,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2002,4,1]],"date-time":"2002-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1017619200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Robotics and Autonomous Systems"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2002,4]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/s0921-8890(02)00170-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,10,15]],"date-time":"2002-10-15T01:22:28Z","timestamp":1034644948000},"page":"1-18","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":196,"title":["Embodied Evolution: Distributing an evolutionary algorithm in a population of robots"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"39","author":[{"given":"Richard A.","family":"Watson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Sevan G.","family":"Ficici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Jordan B.","family":"Pollack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB1","unstructured":"P. Husbands, I. Harvey, D. Cliff, Central issues in evolutionary robotics, unpublished manuscript; presented at ALife III, Santa Fe, NM, 1992."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R.A. Watson, S.G. Ficici, J.B. Pollack, Embodied Evolution: Embodying an evolutionary algorithm in a population of robots, in: P.J. Angeline, Z. Michalewicz, M. Schoenauer, X. Yao, A. Zalzala (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1999 Congress on Evolutionary Computation, IEEE Press, New York, 1999, pp. 335\u2013342.","DOI":"10.1109\/CEC.1999.781944"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB3","unstructured":"S.G. Ficici, R.A. Watson, J.B. Pollack, Embodied Evolution: A response to challenges in evolutionary robotics, in: J.L. Wyatt, J. Demiris (Eds.), Proceedings of the Eighth European Workshop on Learning Robots, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1999, pp. 14\u201322."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB4","unstructured":"R.A. Brooks, Intelligence without reason, in: B. Grosz, J. Mylopoulos, R. Reiter (Eds.), Proceedings of the 12th International Joint Conference on AI, (IJCAI-91), Sydney, Australia, Morgan Kaufmann, Los Altos, CA, 1991, pp. 569\u2013595."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"I. Harvey, P. Husbands, D. Cliff, Issues in evolutionary robotics, in: J.-A. Meyer, H.L. Roitblat, S.W. Wilson (Eds.), From Animals to Animats 2, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1993, pp. 364\u2013373.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3116.003.0050"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D. Floreano, F. Mondada, Automatic creation of an autonomous agent: Genetic evolution of a neural-network driven robot, in: D. Cliff, P. Husbands, J.-A. Meyer, S. Wilson (Eds.), From Animals to Animats 3, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994, pp. 421\u2013430.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3117.003.0061"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1109\/3477.499791","article-title":"Evolution of homing navigation in a real mobile robot","volume":"26","author":"Floreano","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, Cybernetics\u2014Part B: Cybernetics"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(97)00038-9","article-title":"Evolving non-trivial behaviors on real robots: A garbage collecting robot","volume":"22","author":"Nolfi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Robotics and Autonomous Systems"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB9","unstructured":"G.M. Werner, M.G. Dyer, Evolution of communication in artificial organisms, in: C. Langton, C. Taylor, J. Farmer, S. Rasmussen (Eds.), Artificial Life II, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1991, pp. 659\u2013687."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB10","unstructured":"W. Fontana, Algorithmic chemistry, in: C. Langton, C. Taylor, J. Farmer, S. Rasmussen (Eds.), Artificial Life II, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1991, pp. 159\u2013209."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB11","unstructured":"T.S. Ray. An approach to the synthesis of life, in: C. Langton, C. Taylor, J. Farmer, S. Rasmussen (Eds.), Artificial Life II, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1991, pp. 371\u2013408."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB12","unstructured":"J. Ventrella, Attractiveness vs efficiency (how mate preference affects locomotion in the evolution of artificial swimming organisms), in: C. Adami, R.K. Belew, H. Kitano, C. Taylor (Eds.), Artificial Life VI, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998, pp. 178\u2013186."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M.J. Mataric, D. Cliff, Challenges in evolving controllers for physical robots, Robotics and Autonomous Systems 19 (1) (1996) 67\u201383 (Special Issue on Evolutional Robotics).","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(96)00034-6"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1177\/105971239700600205","article-title":"Evolutionary robotics and the radical envelope of noise hypothesis","volume":"6","author":"Jakobi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Adaptive Behavior"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB15","unstructured":"N. Jakobi, Half-baked, ad hoc, and noisy: Minimal simulations for evolutionary robotics, in: P. Husbands, I. Harvey (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fourth European Conference on Artificial Life, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997, pp. 348\u2013357."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB16","unstructured":"D.E. Goldberg, Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization, and Machine Learning, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1989."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1177\/105971239300200104","article-title":"Explorations in evolutionary robotics","volume":"2","author":"Cliff","year":"1993","journal-title":"Adaptive Behavior"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P. Husbands, I. Harvey, Evolution versus design: Controlling autonomous robots, in: Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Simulation and Planning, IEEE Press, New York, 1992, pp. 139\u2013146.","DOI":"10.1109\/AIHAS.1992.636878"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.-A. Meyer, P. Husbands, I. Harvey, Evolutionary robotics: A survey of applications and problems, in: P. Husbands, J.-A. Meyer (Eds.), Proceedings of the First European Workshop on Evolutionary Robotics (EvoRobot\u201998), Springer, Berlin, 1998, pp. 1\u201321.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-64957-3_61"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB20","unstructured":"R.A. Brooks, Artificial life and real robots, in: F. Varela, P. Bourgine (Eds.), Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992, pp. 3\u201310."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H. Lipson, J.B. Pollack, Evolving physical creatures, in: M. Bedau, J. McCaskill, N. Packard, S. Rasmussen (Eds.), Artificial Life VII, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2000, pp. 282\u2013287.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/1432.003.0039"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB22","unstructured":"Mathengine, http:\/\/www.mathengine.com"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB23","unstructured":"B. Mirtich, Impulse-based dynamic simulation of rigid body systems, Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 1996."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K. Sims, Evolving 3D morphology and behavior by competition, in: R.A. Brooks, P. Maes (Eds.), Artificial Life IV, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1994, MA, pp. 28\u201339.","DOI":"10.1162\/artl.1994.1.4.353"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. Komosi\u0144ski, S. Ulatowski, Framsticks: Towards a simulation of a nature-like world, creatures and evolution, in: D. Floreano, J.-D. Nicoud, F. Mondada (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on Artificial Life, Springer, Berlin, 1999, pp. 261\u2013265.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-48304-7_33"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S. Nolfi, D. Floreano, Evolutionary Robotics: The Biology, Intelligence, and Technology of Self-Organizing Machines, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2000.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/2889.001.0001"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F. Mondada, D. Floreano, Evolution and mobile autonomous robotics, in: E. Sanchez, M. Tommasini (Eds.), Towards Evolvable Hardware, Springer, Berlin, 1996, pp. 221\u2013249.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-61093-6_10"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A. Martinoli, E. Franzi, O. Matthey, Towards a reliable set-up for bio-inspired collective experiments with real robots, in: A. Casals, A.T. de Almeida (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on Experimental Robotics (ISER-97), Springer, Berlin, 1997, pp. 597\u2013608.","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0112995"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB29","unstructured":"D. Keating, Personal communication, 1998."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB30","unstructured":"Applied AI Systems Inc., Continuous Power Supply for Khepera, Product Literature, Kanata, Ont., 1998."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. Beckers, O.E. Holland, J.L. Deneubourg, From local actions to global tasks: Stigmergy and collective robotics, in: R.A. Brooks, P. Maes (Eds.), Artificial Life IV, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994, pp. 181\u2013189.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/1428.003.0022"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB32","unstructured":"T. Balch, R.C. Arkin, Motor schema-based formation control for multiagent robot teams, in: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Multi-Agent Systems (ICMAS-95), AAAI Press, Menlo Park, CA, 1995, pp. 10\u201316."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D. Rus, B. Donald, J. Jennings, Moving furniture with teams of autonomous robots, in: K. Ikeuchi, P. Khosla, P. Dario, O. Khatib, K. Kosuge (Eds.), Proceedings of IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS\u201995), IEEE Press, New York, 1995, pp. 235\u2013242.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.1995.525802"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1080\/095281397147130","article-title":"Minimalism + distribution = supermodularity","volume":"9","author":"Donald","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal on Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. Tan, Multi-agent reinforcement learning: Independent vs. cooperative agents, in: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Machine Learning, Morgan Kaufmann, Los Altos, CA, 1993, pp. 330\u2013337.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-55860-307-3.50049-6"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. Littman, Markov games as a framework for multi-agent reinforcement learning, in: W.W. Cohen, H. Hirsch (Eds.), Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Machine Learning, Morgan Kaufmann, Los Altos, CA, 1994 pp. 157\u2013163.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-55860-335-6.50027-1"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G.M. Saunders, J.B. Pollack, The evolution of communication schemes of continuous channels, in: P. Maes, M. Mataric, J. Pollack, S. Wilson (Eds.), From Animals to Animats 4, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996, pp. 580\u2013589.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3118.003.0070"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB38","unstructured":"T. Balch, Learning roles: Behavioral diversity in robot teams, in: Proceedings of the 1997 AAAI Workshop on Multiagent Learning (AAAI Technical Report WS-97-03), AAAI Press, Menlo Park, CA, 1997, pp. 7\u201312."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB39","unstructured":"S. Mahadevan, H. Connell, Automatic programming of behavior-based robots using reinforcement learning, in: T. Dean, K. McKeown (Eds.), Proceedings of the Ninth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201991), AAAI Press, Menlo Park, CA, 1991, pp. 768\u2013773."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M.J. Mataric, Learning to behave socially, in: D. Cliff, P. Husbands, J.-A. Meyer, S. Wilson (Eds.), From Animals to Animats 3, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994, pp. 453\u2013462.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3117.003.0065"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M.J. Mataric, Reward functions for accelerated learning, in: W.W. Cohen, H. Hirsch (Eds.), Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Machine Learning, Morgan Kaufmann, Los Altos, CA, 1994, pp. 181\u2013189.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-55860-335-6.50030-1"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L.E. Parker, Task-oriented multi-robot learning in behavior-based systems, Advanced Robotics 11 (4) (1997) 305\u2013322 (Special Issue on Selected Papers from IROS\u201996).","DOI":"10.1163\/156855397X00344"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E. Uchibe, M. Asada, K. Hosoda, Cooperative behavior acquisition in multimobile robots environment by reinforcement learning based on state vector estimation, in: G. Giralt, P. Dario (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Robotics and Automation, IEEE Press, New York, 1998, pp. 1558\u20131563.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.1998.677351"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.B. Pollack, H. Lipson, S.G. Ficici, P. Funes, G. Hornby, R.A. Watson, Evolutionary techniques in physical robotics, in: J. Miller (Ed.), Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Evolvable Systems (ICES 2000), Springer, Berlin, 2000, pp. 175\u2013186.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-46406-9_18"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB45","unstructured":"I. Harvey, The microbial genetic algorithm, Unpublished manuscript, 1996."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB46","unstructured":"M. Resnick, R. Berg, M. Eisenberg, S. Turkle, Beyond black boxes: Bringing transparency and aesthetics back to scientific instruments, 1997, MIT project funded by the National Science Foundation (1997\u20131999)."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N. Sloane, J. Alexander, A.D. Wyner (Eds.), Claude Elwood Shannon: Collected Papers, IEEE Press, New York, 1993.","DOI":"10.1109\/9780470544242"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB48","unstructured":"V. Braitenberg, Vehicles: Experiments in Synthetic Psychology, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1984."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. Schneider-Font\u00e1n, M.J. Mataric, A study of territoriality: The role of critical mass in adaptive task division, in: P. Maes, M. Mataric, J. Pollack, S. Wilson (Eds.), From Animals to Animats 4, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996, pp. 553\u2013561.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3118.003.0067"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB50","unstructured":"M. Schneider-Font\u00e1n, Personal communication, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, 1998."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB51","unstructured":"A. Thompson, Automatic Design of Electronic Circuits in Reconfigurable Hardware by Artificial Evolution, Springer, Berlin, 1998."},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H. Lipson, J.B. Pollack, Automatic design and manufacture of robotic lifeforms, Nature 406 (August 2000) 974\u2013978.","DOI":"10.1038\/35023115"},{"key":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00170-7_BIB53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1162\/106454698568639","article-title":"Evolutionary body building: Adaptive physical designs for robots","volume":"4","author":"Funes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Artificial Life"}],"container-title":["Robotics and Autonomous Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0921889002001707?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0921889002001707?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,3]],"date-time":"2024-12-03T09:41:45Z","timestamp":1733218905000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0921889002001707"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2002,4]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2002,4]]}},"alternative-id":["S0921889002001707"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0921-8890(02)00170-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["0921-8890"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0921-8890","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2002,4]]}}}