{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T01:04:33Z","timestamp":1776387873344,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,1]],"date-time":"2021-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614556800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,1]],"date-time":"2021-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614556800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,14]],"date-time":"2021-01-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610582400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Acta Psychologica"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]],"date-time":"2021-02-12T08:17:03Z","timestamp":1613117823000},"page":"103252","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Stimulus variation-based training enhances artificial grammar learning"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"214","author":[{"given":"Rachel","family":"Schiff","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pesi","family":"Ashkenazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shani","family":"Kahta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ayelet","family":"Sasson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2840","DOI":"10.1044\/2017_JSLHR-L-16-0293","article-title":"The effect of stimulus variability on learning and generalization of reading in a novel script","volume":"60","author":"Adwan-Mansour","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1037\/a0029839","article-title":"Statistical learning in reading: Variability in irrelevant letters helps children learn phonics skills","volume":"49","author":"Apfelbaum","year":"2013","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.40.1.164","article-title":"AGL StimSelect: Software for automated selection of stimuli for artificial grammar learning","volume":"40","author":"Bailey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb2020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009524428448","article-title":"The complexity of artificial grammars","volume":"4","author":"Bollt","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nonlinear Dynamics, Psychology & Life Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brooks, L. R., & Vokey, J. R. (1991). Abstract analogies and abstracted grammars: Comments on Reber (1989) and Mathews et al. (1989). doi:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0096-3445.120.3.316.","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0096-3445.120.3.316"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0030","unstructured":"Bulgarelli, F., & Weiss, D. J. (2019). The more the merrier? The impact of talker variability on artificial grammar learning in preschoolers and adults. In Proceedings of the 43rd Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 123-136)."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.01.032","article-title":"How does the brain learn environmental structure? Ten core principles for understanding the neurocognitive mechanisms of statistical learning","author":"Conway","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb2010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2006.01801.x","article-title":"Statistical learning within and between modalities: Pitting abstract against stimulus-specific representations","volume":"17","author":"Conway","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb2025","article-title":"How to use and report Bayesian hypothesis tests","author":"Dienes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s10936-013-9245-7","article-title":"Lexical richness in maternal input and vocabulary development of Turkish preschoolers in the Netherlands","volume":"43","author":"Demir-Vegter","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Psycholinguistic Research"},{"issue":"5\u20136","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426-004-0208-3","article-title":"Measuring unconscious knowledge: Distinguishing structural knowledge and judgment knowledge","volume":"69","author":"Dienes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychological Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(93)90058-4","article-title":"Learning and development in neural networks: The importance of starting small","volume":"48","author":"Elman","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2014.12.010","article-title":"Domain generality versus modality specificity: The paradox of statistical learning","volume":"19","author":"Frost","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00476","article-title":"Variability and detection of invariant structure","volume":"13","author":"Gomez","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcomdis.2005.11.004","article-title":"The effects of variation on learning word order rules by adults with and without language-based learning disabilities","volume":"39","author":"Grunow","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Communication Disorders"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00415","article-title":"How children use input to acquire a lexicon","volume":"73","author":"Hoff","year":"2002","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2010.08.002","article-title":"Sources of variability in children\u2019s language growth","volume":"61","author":"Huttenlocher","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102919","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2020.102919","article-title":"Surface features can deeply affect artificial grammar learning","volume":"80","author":"Jim\u00e9nez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Consciousness and Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2017.07.002","article-title":"Diversity not quantity in caregiver speech: Using computational modeling to isolate the effects of the quantity and the diversity of the input on vocabulary growth","volume":"98","author":"Jones","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-016-0121-7","article-title":"Implicit learning deficits among adults with developmental dyslexia","volume":"66","author":"Kahta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annals of Dyslexia"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.22.1.169","article-title":"Artificial grammar learning depends on implicit acquisition of both abstract and exemplar-specific information","volume":"22","author":"Knowlton","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb2045","series-title":"Bayesian cognitive modeling: A practical course","author":"Lee","year":"2014"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb2015","first-page":"707","article-title":"Transfer in artificial grammar learning: the role of repetition information","volume":"32","author":"Lotz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1525\/mp.2010.27.5.377","article-title":"Humans rapidly learn grammatical structure in a new musical scale","volume":"27","author":"Loui","year":"2010","journal-title":"Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.23.4.1007","article-title":"Associative chunk strength in artificial grammar learning","volume":"23","author":"Meulemans","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2017.11.016","article-title":"Structured sequence learning across sensory modalities in humans and nonhuman primates","volume":"21","author":"Milne","year":"2018","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2014.03.009","article-title":"The case for an ecological approach to cognitive training","volume":"18","author":"Moreau","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0130","unstructured":"Onnis, L., Monaghan, P., Christiansen, M. H., & Chater, N. (2004). Variability is the spice of learning, and a crucial ingredient for detecting and generalizing in nonadjacent dependencies. In Proceedings of the annual meeting of the cognitive science society (Vol. 26, No. 26)."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.400","article-title":"Do children with developmental dyslexia have impairments in implicit learning?","volume":"16","author":"Pavlidou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2014.03.040","article-title":"Implicit learning and reading: Insights from typical children and children with developmental dyslexia using the artificial grammar learning (AGL) paradigm","volume":"35","author":"Pavlidou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2009.01290.x","article-title":"Statistical learning in a natural language by 8-month-old infants","volume":"80","author":"Pelucchi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0150","series-title":"A subjective unit formation account of implicit learning","author":"Perruchet","year":"1997"},{"issue":"3S","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1044\/2018_LSHSS-STLT1-17-0131","article-title":"Learning without trying: The clinical relevance of statistical learning","volume":"49","author":"Plante","year":"2018","journal-title":"Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.3758\/PBR.16.6.1058","article-title":"Stimulus set size and statistical coverage of the grammar in artificial grammar learning","volume":"16","author":"Poletiek","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2009.04.019","article-title":"Separate influences in learning: Evidence from artificial grammar learning with traumatic brain injury patients","volume":"1275","author":"Pothos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1017\/S1930297500000140","article-title":"Intuitive decisions on the fringes of consciousness: Are they conscious and does it matter?","volume":"3","author":"Price","year":"2008","journal-title":"Judgment and Decision making"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12593","article-title":"The developmental trajectory of children's auditory and visual statistical learning abilities: Modality-based differences in the effect of age","volume":"21","author":"Raviv","year":"2018","journal-title":"Developmental Science"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(67)80149-X","article-title":"Implicit learning of artificial grammars","volume":"6","author":"Reber","year":"1967","journal-title":"Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.118.3.219","article-title":"Implicit learning and tacit knowledge","volume":"118","author":"Reber","year":"1989","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology. General"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.125.2.123","article-title":"Transfer in artificial grammar learning: A reevaluation","volume":"125","author":"Redington","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology. General"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-7687.2008.00786.x","article-title":"Speaker variability augments phonological processing in early word learning","volume":"12","author":"Rost","year":"2009","journal-title":"Developmental Science"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-7078.2010.00033.x","article-title":"Finding the signal by adding noise: The role of noncontrastive phonetic variability in early word learning","volume":"15","author":"Rost","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-0277(01)00132-9","article-title":"Words in a sea of sounds: The output of infant statistical learning","volume":"81","author":"Saffran","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0230","first-page":"13","article-title":"Statistic learning by eight-month-old infants","volume":"274","author":"Safran","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb2030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2016.06.012","article-title":"Subliminal or not? Comparing null-hypothesis and Bayesian methods for testing subliminal priming","volume":"44","author":"Sand","year":"2016","journal-title":"Consciousness and Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.01084","article-title":"Does complexity matter? Meta-analysis of learner performance in artificial grammar tasks","volume":"5","author":"Schiff","year":"2014","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-017-0147-5","article-title":"The role of feedback in implicit and explicit artificial grammar learning: A comparison between dyslexic and nondyslexic adults","volume":"67","author":"Schiff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annals of Dyslexia"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.04.011","article-title":"Linguistic entrenchment: Prior knowledge impacts statistical learning performance","volume":"177","author":"Siegelman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0255","series-title":"Exploring variation between artificial grammar learning","author":"Trotter","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.18.2.328","article-title":"Salience of item knowledge in learning artificial grammars","volume":"18","author":"Vokey","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vokey, J. R., & Brooks, L. R. (1992b). Salience of item knowledge in learning artificial grammars. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(2), 328. doi:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0278-7393.18.2.328.","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0278-7393.18.2.328"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2017.09.017","article-title":"Does a lack of auditory experience affect sequential learning?","volume":"170","author":"von Koss Torkildsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2012\/11-0125)","article-title":"Exemplar variability facilitates rapid learning of an otherwise unlearnable grammar by individuals with language-based learning disability","author":"von Koss Torkildsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb2035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-017-1323-7","article-title":"Bayesian inference for psychology. Part II: example applications with JASP","volume":"25","author":"Wagenmakers","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0280","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-011-0180-2","article-title":"Metacognitive judgments of repetition and variability effects in natural concept learning: Evidence for variability neglect","volume":"40","author":"Wahlheim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Memory and Cognition"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0285","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.122.2.227","article-title":"Incidentally, things in general are particularly determined: An episodic-processing account of implicit learning","volume":"122","author":"Whittlesea","year":"1993","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology. General"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252_bb0290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426-011-0328-5","article-title":"Artificial grammar learning in children: Abstraction of rules or sensitivity to perceptual features?","volume":"76","author":"Witt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychological Research"}],"container-title":["Acta Psychologica"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0001691821000020?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0001691821000020?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]],"date-time":"2025-09-10T23:53:41Z","timestamp":1757548421000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0001691821000020"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]},"references-count":57,"alternative-id":["S0001691821000020"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252","relation":{},"ISSN":["0001-6918"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0001-6918","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Stimulus variation-based training enhances artificial grammar learning","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Acta Psychologica","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103252","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"103252"}}