{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T06:11:56Z","timestamp":1793686316330,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,12,1]],"date-time":"2026-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1796083200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,12,1]],"date-time":"2026-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1796083200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002332","name":"Semmelweis University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002332","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Autoimmunity Reviews"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T16:09:35Z","timestamp":1788278975000},"page":"104175","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The renaissance of hydroxychloroquine: bridging antimicrobial immunity and autoimmunity in rheumatic diseases"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"M\u00e1rk","family":"Szab\u00f3","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e1s","family":"Perl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gy\u00f6rgy","family":"Nagy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Judit","family":"Majnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-010-8243-x","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine: from malaria to autoimmunity","volume":"42","author":"Ben-Zvi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin Rev Allergy Immunol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1038\/s41584-020-0372-x","article-title":"Mechanisms of action of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine: implications for rheumatology","volume":"16","author":"Schrezenmeier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Rev Rheumatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.7326\/M22-2453","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine dose and risk for incident retinopathy\u202f: a cohort study","volume":"176","author":"Melles","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14161803","article-title":"Classification of hydroxychloroquine retinopathy: a literature review and proposal for revision","volume":"14","author":"Ahn","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diagnostics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1007\/s40264-018-0689-4","article-title":"Cardiac complications attributed to chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine: a systematic review of the literature","volume":"41","author":"Chatre","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drug Saf"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2020.04.024","article-title":"Characterizing the adverse dermatologic effects of hydroxychloroquine: a systematic review","volume":"83","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Am Acad Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1111\/imj.15908","article-title":"How toxic is an old friend? A review of the safety of hydroxychloroquine in clinical practice","volume":"53","author":"Fairley","year":"2023","journal-title":"Intern Med J"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R155","DOI":"10.1186\/ar3895","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine is associated with impaired interferon-alpha and tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by plasmacytoid dendritic cells in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"14","author":"Sacre","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arthritis Res Ther"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-023-09367-3","article-title":"Immunosuppression by hydroxychloroquine: mechanistic proof in in vitro experiments but limited systemic activity in a randomized placebo-controlled clinical pharmacology study","volume":"71","author":"In \u2019t Veld","year":"2023","journal-title":"Immunol Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4089","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1402793","article-title":"Cutting edge: antimalarial drugs inhibit IFN-\u03b2 production through blockade of cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-DNA interaction","volume":"194","author":"An","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2259","DOI":"10.1002\/art.40223","article-title":"Review: metabolic control of immune system activation in rheumatic diseases","volume":"69","author":"Perl","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1186\/ar3251","article-title":"Abnormalities of T cell signaling in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"13","author":"Moulton","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arthritis Res Ther"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1002\/1529-0131(200201)46:1<163::AID-ART10065>3.0.CO;2-J","article-title":"Abnormal expression of various molecular forms and distribution of T cell receptor \u03b6 chain in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"46","author":"Nambiar","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3676","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.173.6.3676","article-title":"Nitric oxide-dependent mitochondrial biogenesis generates Ca2+ signaling profile of lupus T cells","volume":"173","author":"Nagy","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevImmunol.v25.i2.30","article-title":"T- and B-cell abnormalities in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"25","author":"Nagy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Crit Rev Immunol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0080","series-title":"Methods in molecular biology","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60761-720-4_5","article-title":"The role of endocytic recycling in autoimmunity","author":"Telarico","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-021-00766-3","article-title":"Mechanisms and functions of endocytosis in T cells","volume":"19","author":"Charpentier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Commun Signal"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0090","article-title":"Antiphospholipid syndrome","volume":"4","author":"Schreiber","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Primers"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24021331","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine as an immunomodulatory and antithrombotic treatment in antiphospholipid syndrome","volume":"24","author":"Arachchillage","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/bcpt.70082","article-title":"The role of hydroxychloroquine in the management of rheumatic disorders: a comprehensive review","volume":"137","author":"Ates","year":"2025","journal-title":"Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2292","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2009-04-213520","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine protects the annexin A5 anticoagulant shield from disruption by antiphospholipid antibodies: evidence for a novel effect for an old antimalarial drug","volume":"115","author":"Rand","year":"2010","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1002\/art.40018","article-title":"Effects of hydroxychloroquine in patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, parallel-group trial","volume":"69","author":"Yokogawa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0195","article-title":"A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of hydroxychloroquine in incomplete lupus","author":"Olsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199101173240303","article-title":"A randomized study of the effect of withdrawing hydroxychloroquine sulfate in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"324","author":"Canadian Hydroxychloroquine Study, G","year":"1991","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0295","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.7326\/M17-1430","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine effectiveness in reducing symptoms of hand osteoarthritis: a randomized trial","volume":"168","author":"Kingsbury","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/rmdopen-2021-001660","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine in patients with inflammatory and erosive osteoarthritis of the hands: results of the OA-TREAT study-a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre, investigator-initiated trial","volume":"7","author":"Kedor","year":"2021","journal-title":"RMD Open"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0300","first-page":"221","article-title":"The effect of hydroxychloroquine on symptoms of knee osteoarthritis: a double-blind randomized controlled clinical trial","volume":"38","author":"Jokar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Iran J Med Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9343(99)80399-4","article-title":"A randomized trial of hydroxychloroquine in early rheumatoid arthritis: the HERA Study","volume":"98","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-119-11-199312010-00002","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine compared with placebo in rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized controlled trial","volume":"119","author":"Clark","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0455","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1002\/1529-0131(199902)42:2<357::AID-ANR19>3.0.CO;2-J","article-title":"Dose-loading with hydroxychloroquine improves the rate of response in early, active rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized, double-blind six-week trial with eighteen-week extension","volume":"42","author":"Furst","year":"1999","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2014.7682","article-title":"Effects of hydroxychloroquine on symptomatic improvement in primary Sjogren syndrome: the JOQUER randomized clinical trial","volume":"312","author":"Gottenberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1136\/ard-2023-224762","article-title":"EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus: 2023 update","volume":"83","author":"Fanouriakis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2008.101766","article-title":"Clinical efficacy and side effects of antimalarials in systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review","volume":"69","author":"Ruiz-Irastorza","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1177\/1759720X211073001","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine in systemic lupus erythematosus: overview of current knowledge","volume":"14","author":"Dima","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1007\/s11926-013-0360-0","article-title":"2013 update: Hopkins lupus cohort","volume":"15","author":"Fangtham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr Rheumatol Rep"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2011.150","article-title":"The role of antimalarial agents in the treatment of SLE and lupus nephritis","volume":"7","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat Rev Nephrol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2230","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kead576","article-title":"Effect of antimalarials on clinical outcomes in lupus nephritis","volume":"63","author":"Pena-Vizcarra","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rheumatology (Oxford)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1007\/s40620-023-01733-6","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine in nephrology: current status and future directions","volume":"36","author":"Rao","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Nephrol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s11926-010-0141-y","article-title":"Use of hydroxychloroquine to prevent thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus and in antiphospholipid antibody-positive patients","volume":"13","author":"Petri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr Rheumatol Rep"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0155","first-page":"325","article-title":"The cholesterol lowering effect of antimalarial drugs is enhanced in patients with lupus taking corticosteroid drugs","volume":"26","author":"Rahman","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Rheumatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-023-00797-8","article-title":"Vascular damage in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"20","author":"Ambler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Nephrol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1002\/art.21039","article-title":"Systemic lupus erythematosus in three ethnic groups: XVI. Association of hydroxychloroquine use with reduced risk of damage accrual","volume":"52","author":"Fessler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1002\/art.27300","article-title":"Antimalarial treatment may have a time-dependent effect on lupus survival: data from a multinational Latin American inception cohort","volume":"62","author":"Shinjo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD002954.pub2","article-title":"Drugs for discoid lupus erythematosus","author":"Jessop","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2023.09.002","article-title":"KDIGO 2024 clinical practice guideline for the management of LUPUS NEPHRITIS","volume":"105","author":"Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes Lupus Nephritis Work, G","year":"2024","journal-title":"Kidney Int"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1002\/art.41191","article-title":"2020 American College of Rheumatology guideline for the management of reproductive health in rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases","volume":"72","author":"Sammaritano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.24155","article-title":"Clinical significance of monitoring hydroxychloroquine levels in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"73","author":"Garg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2092","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.150379","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine blood levels in systemic lupus erythematosus: clarifying dosing controversies and improving adherence","volume":"42","author":"Durcan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Rheumatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1097\/BOR.0000000000000872","article-title":"Advances in the clinical use of hydroxychloroquine levels","volume":"34","author":"Chakrabarti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Opin Rheumatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.1194","article-title":"A prospective international study on adherence to treatment in 305 patients with flaring SLE: assessment by drug levels and self-administered questionnaires","volume":"106","author":"Costedoat-Chalumeau","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Pharmacol Ther"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1177\/0961203319851558","article-title":"Association between hydroxychloroquine levels and disease activity in a predominantly Hispanic systemic lupus erythematosus cohort","volume":"28","author":"Geraldino-Pardilla","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.24596","article-title":"2021 American College of Rheumatology guideline for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"73","author":"Fraenkel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1136\/ard-2022-223356","article-title":"EULAR recommendations for the management of rheumatoid arthritis with synthetic and biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: 2022 update","volume":"82","author":"Smolen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2019-215213","article-title":"EULAR recommendations for the management of antiphospholipid syndrome in adults","volume":"78","author":"Tektonidou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s00296-023-05457-5","article-title":"The effects of hydroxychloroquine and its promising use in refractory obstetric antiphospholipid syndrome","volume":"44","author":"Fierro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rheumatol Int"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0255","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/41.8.924","article-title":"A cross-sectional study of clinical thrombotic risk factors and preventive treatments in antiphospholipid syndrome","volume":"41","author":"Erkan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rheumatology (Oxford)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2019-216114","article-title":"EULAR recommendations for the management of Sjogren\u2019s syndrome with topical and systemic therapies","volume":"79","author":"Ramos-Casals","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.19870","article-title":"The use of hydroxychloroquine as a systemic treatment in erosive lichen planus of the vulva and vagina","volume":"185","author":"Vermeer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br J Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1403","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.16464","article-title":"European S1 guidelines on the management of lichen planus: a cooperation of the European Dermatology Forum with the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology","volume":"34","author":"Ioannides","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0280","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.23822\/EurAnnACI.1764-1489.11","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine in the treatment of anti-histamine refractory chronic spontaneous urticaria, randomized single-blinded placebo-controlled trial and an open label comparison study","volume":"49","author":"Boonpiyathad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur Ann Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0285","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1111\/all.15090","article-title":"The international EAACI\/GA\u00b2LEN\/EuroGuiDerm\/APAAACI guideline for the definition, classification, diagnosis, and management of urticaria","volume":"77","author":"Zuberbier","year":"2022","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0305","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2023.09.018","article-title":"Much ado about nothing? Discrepancy between the available data on the antiviral effect of hydroxychloroquine in March 2020 and its inclusion in COVID-19 clinical trials and outpatient prescriptions","volume":"225","author":"Vieux","year":"2023","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0310","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-2918(97)80045-8","article-title":"Comparison of hydroxychloroquine with zidovudine in asymptomatic patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1","volume":"19","author":"Sperber","year":"1997","journal-title":"Clin Ther"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0315","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2012.6936","article-title":"Effects of hydroxychloroquine on immune activation and disease progression among HIV-infected patients not receiving antiretroviral therapy: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"308","author":"Paton","year":"2012","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0320","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2170","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.24575","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine augments early virological response to pegylated interferon plus ribavirin in genotype-4 chronic hepatitis C patients","volume":"88","author":"Helal","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Med Virol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0325","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0282-0","article-title":"Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0330","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-020-0156-0","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine, a less toxic derivative of chloroquine, is effective in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Discov"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0335","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2030","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2022926","article-title":"Effect of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalized patients with Covid-19","volume":"383","author":"Group, R.C","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0340","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.22240","article-title":"Effect of hydroxychloroquine on clinical status at 14 days in hospitalized patients with COVID-19","author":"Self","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0460","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2016638","article-title":"A randomized trial of hydroxychloroquine as postexposure prophylaxis for Covid-19","volume":"383","author":"Boulware David","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0465","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-6519","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine as postexposure prophylaxis to prevent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection","volume":"174","author":"Barnabas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0470","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2021801","article-title":"A cluster-randomized trial of hydroxychloroquine for prevention of Covid-19","volume":"384","author":"Mitj\u00e0","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0475","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2020.6319","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of hydroxychloroquine vs placebo for pre-exposure SARS-CoV-2 prophylaxis among health care workers","author":"Abella","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0480","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-4207","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine in nonhospitalized adults with early COVID-19: a randomized trial","author":"Skipper","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0485","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2019014","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine with or without azithromycin in mild-to-moderate COVID-19","author":"Cavalcanti","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0490","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaa446","article-title":"Treating COVID-19 with hydroxychloroquine (TEACH)","author":"Ulrich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0370","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2025.11.001","article-title":"Special AAO report: recommendations on screening for hydroxychloroquine retinopathy (2025 revision)","volume":"133","author":"Marmor","year":"2026","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0345","first-page":"1158","article-title":"Chloroquine retinopathy in the rhesus monkey","volume":"17","author":"Rosenthal","year":"1978","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0350","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2020.173454","article-title":"Molecular effects and retinopathy induced by hydroxychloroquine during SARS-CoV-2 therapy: role of CYP450 isoforms and epigenetic modulations","volume":"886","author":"Paniri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur J Pharmacol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0355","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1002\/jps.24663","article-title":"Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are novel inhibitors of human organic anion transporting polypeptide 1A2","volume":"105","author":"Xu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Pharm Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0360","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3873","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-022-02825-3","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine causes early inner retinal toxicity and affects autophagosome-lysosomal pathway and sphingolipid metabolism in the retina","volume":"59","author":"Mondal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0365","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1196783","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine-induced retinal toxicity","volume":"14","author":"Yusuf","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0375","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2020.03.024","article-title":"Urgent guidance for navigating and circumventing the QTc-prolonging and torsadogenic potential of possible pharmacotherapies for coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19)","volume":"95","author":"Giudicessi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mayo Clin Proc"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0380","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1930","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2020.06.029","article-title":"Effects of hydroxychloroquine treatment on QT interval","volume":"17","author":"Hooks","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0385","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1177\/10600280231204969","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine-chloroquine, QT-prolongation, and major adverse cardiac events: a meta-analysis and scoping review","volume":"58","author":"Garcia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann Pharmacother"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0390","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1159\/000531132","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine attenuates hERG channel by promoting the membrane channel degradation: computational simulation and experimental evidence for QT-interval prolongation with hydroxychloroquine treatment","volume":"148","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0395","first-page":"77","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine cardiotoxicity presenting as a rapidly evolving biventricular cardiomyopathy: key diagnostic features and literature review","volume":"2","author":"Joyce","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0400","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2022-252327","article-title":"Endomyocardial biopsy-proven hydroxychloroquine-induced cardiomyopathy in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"16","author":"Malhotra","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0405","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.161063","article-title":"Increased incidence of gastrointestinal side effects in patients taking hydroxychloroquine: a brand-related issue?","volume":"44","author":"Srinivasa","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Rheumatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0410","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine-induced hepatotoxicity in systemic lupus erythematous: a case report and literature review","volume":"17","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0415","article-title":"Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine myopathy: clinical spectrum and treatment outcomes","volume":"11","author":"Naddaf","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0420","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine-induced toxic myopathy causing diaphragmatic weakness and lung collapse requiring prolonged mechanical ventilation","volume":"8","author":"Pillittere","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Investig Med High Impact Case Rep"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0425","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.14333","article-title":"The effects of hydroxychloroquine on insulin sensitivity, insulin clearance and inflammation in insulin-resistant adults: a randomized trial","volume":"23","author":"Toledo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0430","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/5214751","article-title":"Potential effect of hydroxychloroquine in diabetes mellitus: a systematic review on preclinical and clinical trial studies","volume":"2020","author":"Wondafrash","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Diabetes Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0435","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.55563\/clinexprheumatol\/styx9u","article-title":"The safety profile of hydroxychloroquine: major cutaneous and extracutaneous adverse events","volume":"39","author":"Gisondi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Exp Rheumatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175_bb0440","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1007\/s10787-018-0498-5","article-title":"Neuropsychiatric clinical manifestations in elderly patients treated with hydroxychloroquine: a review article","volume":"26","author":"Mascolo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inflammopharmacology"}],"container-title":["Autoimmunity Reviews"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1568997226001898?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1568997226001898?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T11:40:58Z","timestamp":1788522058000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1568997226001898"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["S1568997226001898"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175","relation":{},"ISSN":["1568-9972"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1568-9972","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"The renaissance of hydroxychloroquine: bridging antimicrobial immunity and autoimmunity in rheumatic diseases","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Autoimmunity Reviews","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104175","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"104175"}}