{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T04:29:04Z","timestamp":1792297744023,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,1]],"date-time":"2020-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1577836800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,1]],"date-time":"2020-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1577836800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,30]],"date-time":"2020-01-30T11:38:46Z","timestamp":1580384326000},"page":"101379","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["Autoimmune Addison's disease"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"34","author":[{"given":"Serena","family":"Saverino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alberto","family":"Falorni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.5362.887","article-title":"Eighty-six cases of Addison's disease","volume":"5362","author":"Dunlop","year":"1963","journal-title":"Br Med J"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1931.02730200022005","article-title":"Treatment of Addison's disease with the cortical hormone of the suprarenal gland: summary of immediate results in twenty cases treated with the preparation made by Swingle and Pfiffner","volume":"97","author":"Rowntree","year":"1931","journal-title":"J\u00a0Am Med Assoc"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1126\/science.113.2947.713","article-title":"The probability that compound F (17-hydroxycorticosterone) is the hormone produced by the normal human adrenal cortex","volume":"113","author":"Conn","year":"1951","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(68)90948-3","article-title":"Epidemiological and clinical picture of Addison's disease","volume":"II","author":"Mason","year":"1968","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib5","first-page":"127","article-title":"Addison's disease. Clinical studies. A report of 108 cases","volume":"76","author":"Nerup","year":"1974","journal-title":"Acta Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.1994.tb02790.x","article-title":"Eighty-six cases of Addison's disease","volume":"41","author":"Kong","year":"1994","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.73.859.286","article-title":"The prevalence of Addison's disease in Coventry, UK","volume":"73","author":"Willis","year":"1997","journal-title":"Postgrad Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib8","first-page":"1762","article-title":"Is the prevalence of Addison's disease underestimated?","volume":"84","author":"Laureti","year":"1999","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2265.2002.t01-1-01552.x","article-title":"High prevalence and increasing incidence of Addison's disease in western Norway","volume":"56","author":"L\u00f8v\u00e5s","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.4158\/EP15754.OR","article-title":"Increasing prevalence of Addison disease: results from a nationwide study","volume":"22","author":"Olafsson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Endocr Pract"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-13-0756","article-title":"Increasing prevalence of addison's disease in German females: health insurance data 2008-2012","volume":"170","author":"Meyer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164s","DOI":"10.1016\/S0753-3322(00)80036-0","article-title":"Epidemiologic study of adrenal gland disorders in Japan","volume":"54","author":"Takayanagi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib13","first-page":"2752","article-title":"High diagnostic accuracy for idiopathic Addison's disease with a sensitive radiobinding assay for autoantibodies against recombinant human 21-hydroxylase","volume":"80","author":"Falorni","year":"1995","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1530\/eje.0.1420187","article-title":"Autoantibodies against recombinant human steroidogenic enzymes 21-hydroxylase, side-chain cleavage and 17\u03b1-hydroxylase in Addison's disease and autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type III","volume":"142","author":"Silva","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2265.2003.01889.x","article-title":"Low prevalence of 21-hydroxylase antibodies in idiopathic Addison's disease from India","volume":"59","author":"Nigam","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4882","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-1368","article-title":"Clinical, immunological, and genetic features of autoimmune primary adrenal insufficiency: observations from a Norwegian registry","volume":"94","author":"Erichsen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-13-0528","article-title":"Addison's disease: a survey on 633 patients in Padova","volume":"169","author":"Betterle","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1159\/000443871","article-title":"From genetic predisposition to molecular mechanisms of autoimmune primary adrenal insufficiency","volume":"46","author":"Falorni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Horm Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.87.2.8192","article-title":"Autoimmune adrenocortical failure in Norway autoantibodies and human leukocyte antigen class II associations related to clinical features","volume":"87","author":"Myhre","year":"2002","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.54.3.900","article-title":"Retrovirus-like long terminal repeat DQ-LTR13 and genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes mellitus and autoimmune Addison's disease","volume":"54","author":"Gambelunghe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib21","first-page":"1","article-title":"MIC genes: from genetics to biology","volume":"76","author":"Bahram","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv Immunol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12445","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.22.12445","article-title":"Cell stress-regulated human major histocompatibility complex class I gene expressed in gastrointestinal epithelium","volume":"93","author":"Groh","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-0039.1997.tb02778.x","article-title":"Trinucleotide repeat polymorphism within exon 5 of the MICA gene (MHC class I chain-related gene A): allele frequency data in the nine population groups Japanese, Northern Han, Hui, Uygur, Kazakhstan, Iranian, Saudi Arabian, Greek and Italian","volume":"49","author":"Ota","year":"1997","journal-title":"Tissue Antigens"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib24","first-page":"3701","article-title":"Microsatellite polymorphism of the MHC class I chain-related (MIC-A and MIC-B) genes marks the risk for autoimmune Addison's disease","volume":"84","author":"Gambelunghe","year":"1999","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-0039.2002.600206.x","article-title":"Additional association of intra-MHC genes, MICA and D6S273, with Addison's disease","volume":"60","author":"Park","year":"2002","journal-title":"Tissue Antigens"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6185","DOI":"10.1128\/MCB.20.17.6185-6194.2000","article-title":"Class II transactivator: mastering the art of major histocompatibility complex expression","volume":"20","author":"Harton","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mol Cell Biol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4107","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2006-0855","article-title":"MHC2TA single nucleotide polymorphism and genetic risk for autoimmune adrenal insufficiency","volume":"91","author":"Ghaderi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3310","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2008-0821","article-title":"Polymorphisms in CLEC16A and CIITA at 16p13 are associated with primary adrenal insufficiency","volume":"93","author":"Skinningsrud","year":"2008","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1038\/ni846","article-title":"CTLA-4-Ig regulates tryptophan catabolism in\u00a0vivo","volume":"3","author":"Grohmann","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2265.1998.00579.x","article-title":"A\u00a0cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) gene polymorphism is associated with autoimmune Addison's disease in English patients","volume":"49","author":"Kemp","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib31","first-page":"688","article-title":"Association analysis of the cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) and autoimmune regulator-1 (AIRE-1) genes in sporadic autoimmune Addison's disease","volume":"85","author":"Vaidya","year":"2000","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-09-0618","article-title":"Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Antigen-4 Ala17 polymorphism is a genetic marker of autoimmune adrenal insufficiency: Italian association study and meta-analysis of European studies","volume":"162","author":"Brozzetti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1038\/gene.2015.27","article-title":"CTLA-4 as a genetic determinant in autoimmune Addison's disease","volume":"16","author":"Wolff","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gene Immun"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1097\/MAJ.0b013e3181db6b7a","article-title":"Delayed diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency is common: a cross-sectional study in 216 patients","volume":"339","author":"Bleicken","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Med Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-019-01079-6","article-title":"Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and diagnosis of Addison's disease in adults","volume":"42","author":"Betterle","year":"2019","journal-title":"J\u00a0Endocrinol Invest"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra020529","article-title":"Corticosteroid insufficiency in acutely ill patients","volume":"348","author":"Cooper","year":"2003","journal-title":"N\u00a0Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1159\/000443915","article-title":"Secondary adrenal insufficiency: where is it hidden and what does it look like?","volume":"46","author":"Guaraldi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Horm Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4027","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2014-2476","article-title":"Central hypoadrenalism","volume":"99","author":"Crowley","year":"2014","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2265.2000.01050.x","article-title":"Low dose (1 \u03bcg) ACTH test in the evaluation of adrenal dysfunction in pre-clinical Addison's disease","volume":"53","author":"Laureti","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1637","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2005-0860","article-title":"Estimated risk for developing autoimmune Addison's disease in patients with adrenal cortex autoantibodies","volume":"91","author":"Coco","year":"2006","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-18-0313","article-title":"The natural history of autoimmune Addison's disease from the detection of autoantibodies to development of the disease: a long follow-up study on 143 patients","volume":"180","author":"Naletto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4245","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2008-0710","article-title":"Consortium for evaluation of corticotropin test in hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal insufficiency: corticotropin tests for hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal insufficiency: a metaanalysis","volume":"93","author":"Kazlauskaite","year":"2008","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1586\/eem.09.20","article-title":"Recent advances in adrenal autoimmunity","volume":"4","author":"Falorni","year":"2009","journal-title":"Expet Rev Endocrinol Metabol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(92)91829-W","article-title":"21-Hydroxylase, a major autoantigen in idiopathic Addison's disease","volume":"339","author":"Winqvist","year":"1992","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(92)91513-8","article-title":"Autoimmune Addison's disease and 21-hydroxylase","volume":"340","author":"Baumann-Antczak","year":"1992","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(92)91894-E","article-title":"Identification by molecular cloning of an autoantigen associated with Addison's disease as steroid 17\u03b1-hydroxylase","volume":"339","author":"Krohn","year":"1992","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2377","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI116843","article-title":"Two different cytochrome P450 enzymes are the adrenal antigens in autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I and Addison's disease","volume":"92","author":"Winqvist","year":"1993","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Invest"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-10-0257","article-title":"Autoantibody responses in autoimmune ovarian insufficiency and in Addison disease are IgG1-dominated and suggest a predominant, but not exclusive, Th1 type of response","volume":"163","author":"Brozzetti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03347492","article-title":"Assessment of adrenocortical function and autoantibodies in a baby born to a mother with autoimmune polyglandular syndrome Type 2","volume":"27","author":"Betterle","year":"2004","journal-title":"J\u00a0Endocrinol Invest"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1097\/GCO.0b013e32833b6c70","article-title":"Primary ovarian insufficiency: autoimmune causes","volume":"22","author":"La Marca","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dew027","article-title":"ESHRE Guideline: management of women with premature ovarian insufficiency","volume":"31","author":"Webber","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1941","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2014-3571","article-title":"Autoantibody response against NALP5\/MATER in primary ovarian insufficiency and in autoimmune Addison's disease","volume":"100","author":"Brozzetti","year":"2015","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2003-030954","article-title":"Italian Addison Network Study: update of diagnostic criteria for the etiological classification of primary adrenal insufficiency","volume":"89","author":"Falorni","year":"2004","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.33.602","article-title":"Addison's disease in Japan: characteristics and changes revealed in a nationwide survey","volume":"33","author":"Nomura","year":"1994","journal-title":"Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(14)70142-1","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of adrenal insufficiency","volume":"3","author":"Bancos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1713301","article-title":"Autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes","volume":"378","author":"Husebye","year":"2018","journal-title":"N\u00a0Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4389","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2008-0935","article-title":"Autoantibodies against type I interferons as an additional diagnostic criteria for autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I","volume":"93","author":"Meloni","year":"2008","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.1170467","article-title":"The natural history of adrenal function in autoimmune patients with adrenal autoantibodies","volume":"117","author":"Betterle","year":"1988","journal-title":"J\u00a0Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2011.04.012","article-title":"Measuring adrenal autoantibody response: interlaboratory concordance in the first international serum exchange for the determination of 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies","volume":"140","author":"Falorni","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin Immunol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.1515\/cclm-2014-1106","article-title":"Determination of 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies: inter-laboratory concordance in the euradrenal international serum exchange program","volume":"53","author":"Falorni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Chem Lab Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib61","first-page":"3507","article-title":"Levels of adrenocortical autoantibodies correlate with the degree of adrenal dysfunction in subjects with pre-clinical Addison's disease","volume":"83","author":"Laureti","year":"1998","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-012-9835-4","article-title":"Therapy of adrenal insufficiency: an update","volume":"43","author":"Falorni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12162","article-title":"Consensus statement on the diagnosis, treatment and follow-up o patients with primary adrenal insufficiency","volume":"275","author":"Husebye","year":"2014","journal-title":"J\u00a0Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2015-1710","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of primary adrenal insufficiency: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline","volume":"101","author":"Bornstein","year":"2016","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199909303411401","article-title":"Dehydroepiandrosterone replacement in women with adrenal insufficiency","volume":"341","author":"Arlt","year":"1999","journal-title":"N\u00a0Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2007-1134","article-title":"Long-term DHEA replacement in primary adrenal insufficiency: a randomized, controlled trial","volume":"93","author":"Gurnell","year":"2008","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1517\/13543784.17.4.497","article-title":"Replacement therapy for Addison's disease: recent developments","volume":"17","author":"L\u00f8v\u00e5s","year":"2008","journal-title":"Expet Opin Invest Drugs"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.12603","article-title":"Adrenal insufficiency: review of clinical outcomes with current glucocorticoid replacement therapy","volume":"82","author":"Johannsson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-08-0880","article-title":"Glucocorticoid replacement therapy and pharmacogenetics in Addison's disease: effects on bone","volume":"160","author":"L\u00f8v\u00e5s","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-017-1380-8","article-title":"Vertebral fractures assessed with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in patients with Addison's disease on glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid replacement therapy","volume":"59","author":"Camozzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-2036","article-title":"Bone mineral density is not significantly reduced in adult patients on low-dose glucocorticoid replacement therapy","volume":"97","author":"Koetz","year":"2012","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-15-1096","article-title":"Reduction in daily hydrocortisone dose improves bone health in primary adrenal insufficiency","volume":"174","author":"Schulz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2796.2011.02352.x","article-title":"Risk of hip fracture in Addison's disease: a population-based cohort study","volume":"270","author":"Bj\u00f6rnsdottir","year":"2011","journal-title":"J\u00a0Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2265.2002.01466.x","article-title":"Subjective health status in Norwegian patients with Addison's disease","volume":"56","author":"L\u00f8v\u00e5s","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3912","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2007-0685","article-title":"Impaired subjective health status in 256 patients with adrenal insufficiency on standard therapy based on cross-sectional analysis","volume":"92","author":"Hahner","year":"2007","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-14-0023","article-title":"Psychological morbidity and impaired quality of life in patients with stable treatment for primary adrenal insufficiency: cross-sectional study and review of the literature","volume":"171","author":"Tiemensma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.12484","article-title":"Impaired health-related quality of life in Addison's disease--impact of replacement therapy, comorbidities and socio-economic factors","volume":"81","author":"Kluger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.13719","article-title":"Quality of life in patients with adrenal disease: a systematic review","volume":"89","author":"Ho","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-1901","article-title":"Quality of life in European patients with Addison's disease: validity of the disease-specific questionnaire AddiQoL","volume":"97","author":"\u00d8ksnes","year":"2012","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-08-1003","article-title":"Altered insulin requirement in patients with type 1 diabetes and primary adrenal insufficiency receiving standard glucocorticoid replacement therapy","volume":"160","author":"Elbelt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03345773","article-title":"Metabolic and cardiovascular profile in patients with Addison's disease under conventional glucocorticoid replacement","volume":"32","author":"Giordano","year":"2009","journal-title":"J\u00a0Endocrinol Invest"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib82","first-page":"3082","article-title":"Metabolic effects of short-term elevations of plasma cortisol are more pronounced in the evening than in the morning","volume":"84","author":"Plat","year":"1999","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4849","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2006-0076","article-title":"Premature mortality in patients with Addison's disease: a population-based study","volume":"91","author":"Bergthorsdottir","year":"2006","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2008.03340.x","article-title":"Increased death risk and altered cancer incidence pattern in patients with isolated or combined autoimmune primary adrenocortical insufficiency","volume":"69","author":"Bensing","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-08-0550","article-title":"Normal overall mortality rate in Addison's disease, but young patients are at risk of premature death","volume":"160","author":"Erichsen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4354","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2010-0445","article-title":"Sexuality and fertility in women with Addison's disease","volume":"95","author":"Erichsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5249","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2010-0108","article-title":"Addison's disease in women is a risk factor for an adverse pregnancy outcome","volume":"95","author":"Bj\u00f6rnsdottir","year":"2010","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1772","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0528.14448","article-title":"Maternal and neonatal outcomes of pregnancies in women with Addison's disease: a population-based cohort study on 7.7 million births","volume":"124","author":"Schneiderman","year":"2017","journal-title":"BJOG"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2004.06.070","article-title":"Placental corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), spontaneous preterm birth, and fetal growth restriction: a prospective investigation","volume":"191","author":"Wadhwa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2010-2395","article-title":"A\u00a0longitudinal study of plasma and urinary cortisol in pregnancy and postpartum","volume":"96","author":"Jung","year":"2011","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1807486","article-title":"Adrenal crisis","volume":"381","author":"Rushworth","year":"2019","journal-title":"N\u00a0Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-09-0884","article-title":"Epidemiology of adrenal crisis in chronic adrenal insufficiency: the need for new prevention strategies","volume":"162","author":"Hahner","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2014-3191","article-title":"High incidence of adrenal crisis in educated patients with chronic adrenal insufficiency: a prospective study","volume":"100","author":"Hahner","year":"2015","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-1926","article-title":"Improved cortisol exposure-time profile and outcome in patients with adrenal insufficiency: a prospective randomized trial of a novel hydrocortisone dual-release formulation","volume":"97","author":"Johannsson","year":"2012","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-14-1114","article-title":"Modified-release hydrocortisone decreases BMI and HbA1c in patients with primary and secondary adrenal insufficiency","volume":"172","author":"Quinkler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-015-0681-z","article-title":"Improvement of anthropometric and metabolic parameters, and quality of life following treatment with dual-release hydrocortisone in patients with Addison's disease","volume":"51","author":"Giordano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(17)30398-4","article-title":"Effect of once-daily, modified-release hydrocortisone versus standard glucocorticoid therapy on metabolism and innate immunity in patients with adrenal insufficiency (DREAM): a single-blind, randomized controlled trial","volume":"6","author":"Isidori","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1530\/EC-17-0368","article-title":"Dual-release hydrocortisone treatment: glycometabolic profile and health-related quality of life","volume":"7","author":"Mongio\u00ec","year":"2018","journal-title":"Endocr Connect"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.13554","article-title":"Improved insulin sensitivity and secretion in prediabetic patients with adrenal insufficiency on dual-release hydrocortisone treatment: a 36-month retrospective analysis","volume":"88","author":"Guarnotta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1530\/EC-18-0257","article-title":"Improved salivary cortisol rhythm with dual-release hydrocortisone","volume":"7","author":"Ceccato","year":"2018","journal-title":"Endocr Connect"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1530\/EC-19-0176","article-title":"Dual-release hydrocortisone vs conventional glucocorticoids in adrenal insufficiency","volume":"8","author":"Guarnotta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Endocr Connect"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1210\/js.2019-00046","article-title":"Modified-release hydrocortisone: is it time to change clinical practice?","volume":"3","author":"Stewart","year":"2019","journal-title":"J\u00a0Endocr Soc"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-07-0052","article-title":"Continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion in Addison's disease","volume":"157","author":"L\u00f8v\u00e5s","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379_bib104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-018-1780-4","article-title":"Continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion in a woman with secondary adrenal insufficiency","volume":"63","author":"Cardini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Endocrine"}],"container-title":["Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1521690X20300063?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1521690X20300063?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]],"date-time":"2025-10-26T16:55:16Z","timestamp":1761497716000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1521690X20300063"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]},"references-count":104,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["S1521690X20300063"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379","relation":{},"ISSN":["1521-690X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1521-690X","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Autoimmune Addison's disease","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.beem.2020.101379","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"101379"}}