{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T15:42:23Z","timestamp":1784130143411,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,1]],"date-time":"2016-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1472688000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavior Therapy"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,9]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,11]],"date-time":"2016-02-11T23:00:12Z","timestamp":1455231612000},"page":"654-668","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Updating Watson & Marks (1971): How Has Our Understanding of the Mechanisms of Extinction Learning Evolved and Where Is Our Field Going Next?"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"47","author":[{"given":"Anu","family":"Asnaani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carmen P.","family":"McLean","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edna B.","family":"Foa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1177\/0145445509344180","article-title":"Relationship of exposure to clinically irrelevant emotion cues and obsessive-compulsive symptoms","volume":"33","author":"Allen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behavior Modification"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2010.07.009","article-title":"Does habituation matter? Emotional processing theory and exposure therapy for acrophobia","volume":"48","author":"Baker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0015","series-title":"Unified protocol for transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders: Therapist guide","author":"Barlow","year":"2011"},{"issue":"3-4","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3956(74)90012-0","article-title":"Irrelevant stress vs response prevention (flooding) interpolated between avoidance acquisition and extinction in rats","volume":"10","author":"Baum","year":"1974","journal-title":"Journal of Psychiatric Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7916(90)90002-3","article-title":"Emotional processing and fear measurement synchrony as indicators of treatment outcome in fear of flying","volume":"21","author":"Beckham","year":"1990","journal-title":"Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbtep.2013.09.003","article-title":"Does change in distress matter? Mechanisms of change in prolonged exposure for PTSD","volume":"45","author":"Bluett","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(79)90096-2","article-title":"The contribution of relaxation and expectancy to fear reduction via graded, imaginal exposure to feared stimuli","volume":"17","author":"Borkovec","year":"1979","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1101\/lm.78804","article-title":"Context and behavioral processes in extinction","volume":"11","author":"Bouton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Learning and Memory"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/0272-7358(91)90091-8","article-title":"Sources of relapse after extinction in Pavlovian and instrumental learning","volume":"11","author":"Bouton","year":"1991","journal-title":"Clinical Psychology Review"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7894(81)80124-4","article-title":"The effects of total exposure duration and interrupted versus continuous exposure in flooding therapy","volume":"12","author":"Chaplin","year":"1981","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1002\/da.21992","article-title":"Transdiagnostic treatment for anxiety and depression","volume":"29","author":"Craske","year":"2012","journal-title":"Depression and Anxiety"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2007.10.003","article-title":"Optimizing inhibitory learning during exposure therapy","volume":"46","author":"Craske","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbtep.2011.10.009","article-title":"Emotional variability and sustained arousal during exposure","volume":"43","author":"Culver","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2012.01.001","article-title":"Unified protocol for transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"43","author":"Farchione","year":"2012","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.51.2.287","article-title":"Success and failure in the behavioral treatment of obsessive-compulsives","volume":"51","author":"Foa","year":"1983","journal-title":"Journalof Consulting and Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0080","series-title":"Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD: Emotional processing of traumatic experiences: Therapist guide","author":"Foa","year":"2007"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0085","series-title":"Pathological anxiety: Emotional processing in etiology and treatment","first-page":"3","article-title":"Emotional processing theory: An update","author":"Foa","year":"2006"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.99.1.20","article-title":"Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information","volume":"99","author":"Foa","year":"1986","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0095","series-title":"Current controversies in the anxiety disorders","first-page":"329","article-title":"Mechanisms of change in exposure therapy","author":"Foa","year":"1996"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7894(05)80096-6","article-title":"The impact of fear activation and anger on the efficacy of exposure treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"26","author":"Foa","year":"1995","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(80)90010-8","article-title":"Effects of imaginal exposure to feared disasters in obsessive-compulsive checkers","volume":"18","author":"Foa","year":"1980","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(82)90091-2","article-title":"Habituation during exposure treatment: Distraction vs attention-focusing","volume":"20","author":"Grayson","year":"1982","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.66.1.185","article-title":"Influence of emotional engagement and habituation on exposure therapy for PTSD","volume":"66","author":"Jaycox","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(03)00137-2","article-title":"Attention to phobic stimuli during exposure: The effect of distraction on anxiety reduction, self-efficacy and perceived control","volume":"42","author":"Johnstone","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(99)00147-3","article-title":"Effects of distraction and guided threat reappraisal on fear reduction during exposure-based treatments for specific fears","volume":"38","author":"Kamphuis","year":"2000","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbtep.2011.10.010","article-title":"Challenges to the traditional exposure paradigm: Variability in exposure therapy for contamination fears","volume":"43","author":"Kircanski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7894(88)80039-X","article-title":"Process and outcome of exposure treatment with obsessive-compulsives: Psychophysiological indicators of emotional processing","volume":"19","author":"Kozak","year":"1988","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(99)00031-5","article-title":"Manipulations of exposure-based therapy to reduce return of fear: A replication","volume":"38","author":"Lang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7894(77)80157-3","article-title":"Imagery in therapy: An information processing analysis of fear","volume":"8","author":"Lang","year":"1977","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1979.tb01511.x","article-title":"A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery","volume":"16","author":"Lang","year":"1979","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(98)00275-3","article-title":"Emotion, motivation, and anxiety: Brain mechanisms and psychophysiology","volume":"44","author":"Lang","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biological Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.92.3.276","article-title":"Fear behavior, fear imagery, and the psychophysiology of emotion: The problem of affective response integration","volume":"92","author":"Lang","year":"1983","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0165","first-page":"220","article-title":"A psychophysiological analysis of fearmodification using an automated desensitization procedure","volume":"76","author":"Lang","year":"1970","journal-title":"Journal of AbnormaPsychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbtep.2015.01.007","article-title":"Development and evaluation of a computerized intervention for low distress tolerance and its effect on performance on a neutralization task","volume":"48","author":"Macatee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.20568","article-title":"Multimethod study of distress tolerance and PTSD symptom severity in a trauma-exposed community sample","volume":"23","author":"Marshall-Berenz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Traumatic Stress"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2013.11.002","article-title":"Changes in distress intolerance and treatment outcome in a partial hospital setting","volume":"45","author":"McHugh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2007.01.003","article-title":"Mechanisms of exposure therapy: How neuroscience can improve psychological treatments for anxiety disorders","volume":"27","author":"McNally","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clinical Psychology Review"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028032","article-title":"Does fear reactivity during exposure predict panic symptom reduction?","volume":"80","author":"Meuret","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0195","first-page":"142","article-title":"Effects of flooding an irrelevant response on the extinction of avoidance responses","volume":"2","author":"Mineka","year":"1976","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2014.12.002","article-title":"Are 60-minute prolonged exposure sessions with 20-minute imaginal exposure to traumatic memories sufficient to successfully treat PTSD? A randomized noninferiority clinical trial","volume":"46","author":"Nacasch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2011.02.006","article-title":"What happens in session does not stay in session: Changes within exposures predict subsequent improvement and dropout","volume":"25","author":"Norton","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Anxiety Disorders"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1348\/014466503762841986","article-title":"Fear reduction during in vivo exposure to blood-injection stimuli: Distraction vs. attentional focus","volume":"42","author":"Oliver","year":"2003","journal-title":"British Journal of Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0215","series-title":"Conditioned reflexes","author":"Pavlov","year":"1927"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-440X(96)90024-3","article-title":"Emotional processing and outcome of imaginal flooding therapy in Vietnam Veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"37","author":"Pitman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Comprehensive Psychiatry"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1007\/s10960-004-5794-8","article-title":"Imagery vividness and perceived anxious arousal in prolonged exposure treatment for PTSD","volume":"17","author":"Rauch","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Traumatic Stress"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0230","series-title":"Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory","first-page":"64","article-title":"A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement","author":"Rescorla","year":"1972"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.61.11.1136","article-title":"Cognitive enhancers as adjuncts to psychotherapy: Use of D-cycloserine in phobic individuals to facilitate extinction of fear","volume":"61","author":"Ressler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Archives of General Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/0887-6185(95)00003-7","article-title":"Effects of alprazolam dose on the induction and habituation processes during behavioral panic induction treatment","volume":"9","author":"Riley","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of Anxiety Disorders"},{"issue":"7-8","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(97)10017-1","article-title":"Effects of varied-stimulus exposure training on fear reduction and return of fear","volume":"36","author":"Rowe","year":"1998","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2005.02.002","article-title":"Discomfort intolerance: Development of a construct and measure relevant to panic disorder","volume":"20","author":"Schmidt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Anxiety Disorders"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0255","series-title":"The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis","author":"Skinner","year":"1938"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(01)00007-9","article-title":"The effects of safety-seeking behavior and guided threat reappraisal on fear reduction during exposure: An experimental investigation","volume":"40","author":"Sloan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2015.01.002","article-title":"Between-session and within-session habituation in prolonged exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A hierarchical linear modeling approach","volume":"30","author":"Sripada","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Anxiety Disorders"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbtep.2004.03.004","article-title":"Fear activation and distraction during the emotional processing of claustrophobic fear","volume":"35","author":"Telch","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7894(00)80026-X","article-title":"Timing of treatment and return of fear: Effects of massed, uniform-, and expanding-spaced exposure schedules","volume":"31","author":"Tsao","year":"2000","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0280","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2013.11.014","article-title":"From Pavlov to PTSD: The extinction of conditioned fear in rodents, humans, and anxiety disorders","volume":"113","author":"Van Elzakker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurobiology of Learning and Memory"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0285","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.20146","article-title":"The effect of imaginal exposure length on outcome of treatment for PTSD","volume":"19","author":"van Minnen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Traumatic Stress"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1020177023209","article-title":"Fear activation and habituation patterns as early process predictors of response to prolonged exposure treatment in PTSD","volume":"15","author":"van Minnen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Traumatic Stress"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003_bb0295","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7894(71)80062-X","article-title":"Relevant and irrelevant fear in flooding: A crossover study of phobic patients","volume":"2","author":"Watson","year":"1971","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"}],"container-title":["Behavior Therapy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0005789416000198?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0005789416000198?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,15]],"date-time":"2018-09-15T09:28:50Z","timestamp":1537003730000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0005789416000198"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,9]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,9]]}},"alternative-id":["S0005789416000198"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.beth.2016.02.003","relation":{},"ISSN":["0005-7894"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0005-7894","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,9]]}}}