{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T13:31:56Z","timestamp":1793280716446,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001826","name":"Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","criticalcare.theclinics.com","theclinics.com","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Critical Care Clinics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T20:40:37Z","timestamp":1781901637000},"page":"891-907","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Sepsis and Systemic Inflammatory Syndromes"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"42","author":[{"given":"Mayra","family":"Romijnders","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bram","family":"Snoek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luc","family":"van Oss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Pickkers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wilson F.","family":"K\u00e4yser-Abdo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.36","article-title":"The immunopathology of sepsis and potential therapeutic targets","volume":"17","author":"van der Poll","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.593808","article-title":"The prevalence, risk factors, and outcomes of sepsis in critically ill patients in China: a multicenter prospective cohort study","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06151-x","article-title":"Incidence and mortality of hospital- and ICU-treated sepsis: results from an updated and expanded systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"46","author":"Fleischmann-Struzek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2013-004283","article-title":"Long-term mortality after community-acquired sepsis: a longitudinal population-based cohort study","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0228952","article-title":"Long-term mortality and outcome in hospital survivors of septic shock, sepsis, and severe infections: the importance of aftercare","volume":"15","author":"Rahmel","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2770","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-021-02303-2","article-title":"Sepsis-associated encephalopathy: from pathophysiology to progress in experimental studies","volume":"58","author":"Catarina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-023-04655-8","article-title":"The spectrum of sepsis-associated encephalopathy: a clinical perspective","volume":"27","author":"Sonneville","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-017-4807-z","article-title":"Potentially modifiable factors contributing to sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"43","author":"Sonneville","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"},{"issue":"14","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.291.14.1753","article-title":"Delirium as a predictor of mortality in mechanically ventilated patients in the intensive care unit","volume":"291","author":"Ely","year":"2004","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1186\/2110-5820-3-15","article-title":"Understanding brain dysfunction in sepsis","volume":"3","author":"Sonneville","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann Intensive Care"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000006096","article-title":"In-Hospital neurologic complications, neuromonitoring, and long-term neurologic outcomes in patients with sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"52","author":"Fan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"16","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2010.1553","article-title":"Long-term cognitive impairment and functional disability among survivors of severe sepsis","volume":"304","author":"Iwashyna","year":"2010","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"14","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1301372","article-title":"Long-term cognitive impairment after critical illness","volume":"369","author":"Pandharipande","year":"2013","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib14","article-title":"Current understanding of long-term cognitive impairment after sepsis","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1560737","article-title":"Sepsis and post-sepsis syndrome: a multisystem challenge requiring comprehensive care and management-a review","volume":"12","author":"Torres","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Med"},{"issue":"23","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14238374","article-title":"From resuscitation to rehabilitation: the post-intensive care syndrome continuum in sepsis care","volume":"14","author":"Sherman","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-4446-2020-0986","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for post-traumatic stress, anxiety, and depression in sepsis survivors after ICU discharge","volume":"43","author":"Calsavara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03577-7","article-title":"Trajectories of depression in sepsis survivors: an observational cohort study","volume":"25","author":"Boede","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-019-2489-3","article-title":"Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adult critical care survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Righy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib20","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder in icu survivors: correlations with long-term psychiatric and physical outcomes","volume":"22","author":"Dell'Oste","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aucc.2017.06.001","article-title":"Post-sepsis cognitive impairment and associated risk factors: a systematic review","volume":"31","author":"Calsavara","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aust Crit Care"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-022-02464-4","article-title":"Sepsis-associated brain injury: underlying mechanisms and potential therapeutic strategies for acute and long-term cognitive impairments","volume":"19","author":"Sekino","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-020-00862-1","article-title":"Septic-associated encephalopathy: a comprehensive review","volume":"17","author":"Mazeraud","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.839472","article-title":"Risk of dementia or cognitive impairment in sepsis survivals: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Lei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000005313","article-title":"Risk of dementia and structural brain changes following nonneurological infections during 9-year follow-up","volume":"50","author":"Peters van Ton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000911","article-title":"Time course of dementia following sepsis in German health claims data","volume":"8","author":"Fritze","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00643-7","article-title":"Cerebral dysfunctions caused by sepsis during ageing","volume":"22","author":"Manabe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"issue":"19","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms251910535","article-title":"Inflammaging and brain aging","volume":"25","author":"Jurcau","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.24147","article-title":"Astrocyte immunosenescence and deficits in interleukin 10 signaling in the aged brain disrupt the regulation of microglia following innate immune activation","volume":"70","author":"O'Neil","year":"2022","journal-title":"Glia"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-025-01004-6","article-title":"The immunology of sepsis: translating new insights into clinical practice","volume":"22","author":"Kox","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nat Rev Nephrol"},{"issue":"6640","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abo7649","article-title":"Transforming the understanding of brain immunity","volume":"380","author":"Castellani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13985","article-title":"Sepsis: developing new alternatives to reduce neuroinflammation and attenuate brain injury","volume":"1437","author":"Meneses","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3214","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.102234","article-title":"Sepsis-associated encephalopathy: mechanisms, diagnosis, and treatments update","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Biol Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1080\/21688370.2020.1840912","article-title":"The blood-brain barrier dysfunction in sepsis","volume":"9","author":"Barichello","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tissue Barriers"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03101-3","article-title":"Brain tight junction protein expression in sepsis in an autopsy series","volume":"24","author":"Erikson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-015-0346-0","article-title":"Pro-inflammatory TNFalpha and IL-1beta differentially regulate the inflammatory phenotype of brain microvascular endothelial cells","volume":"12","author":"O'Carroll","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/914104","article-title":"The role of microglia and matrix metalloproteinases involvement in neuroinflammation and gliomas","volume":"2013","author":"Konnecke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Dev Immunol"},{"issue":"7940","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-05474-7","article-title":"Brain borders at the central stage of neuroimmunology","volume":"612","author":"Rustenhoven","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2025.02.039","article-title":"Glial vascular unit as a bridge between blood-brain barrier and glymphatic system: roles in sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"570","author":"Hu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"issue":"7936","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-05397-3","article-title":"Parenchymal border macrophages regulate the flow dynamics of the cerebrospinal fluid","volume":"611","author":"Drieu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-025-03602-4","article-title":"The brain washing system in sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11112296","article-title":"Glymphatic dysfunction induced oxidative stress and neuro-inflammation in major depression disorders","volume":"11","author":"Gu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antioxidants"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.117.311054","article-title":"Brain perivascular macrophages initiate the neurovascular dysfunction of alzheimer abeta peptides","volume":"121","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circ Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/1876174","article-title":"Association between elevated serum tau protein level and sepsis-associated encephalopathy in patients with severe sepsis","volume":"2019","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M117.786756","article-title":"Receptor for advanced glycation end products mediates sepsis-triggered amyloid-beta accumulation, Tau phosphorylation, and cognitive impairment","volume":"293","author":"Gasparotto","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1464","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awab388","article-title":"Molecular trans-dural efflux to skull bone marrow in humans with CSF disorders","volume":"145","author":"Ringstad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(25)00115-2","article-title":"CSF transport at the brain-meningeal border: effects on neurological health and disease","volume":"24","author":"Pinho-Correia","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"issue":"6553","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf7844","article-title":"Skull and vertebral bone marrow are myeloid cell reservoirs for the meninges and CNS parenchyma","volume":"373","author":"Cugurra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2025.115318","article-title":"Lactate exacerbates neuroinflammation in sepsis-associated encephalopathy via promoting neutrophil migration from skull bone marrow to the meninge","volume":"391","author":"Du","year":"2025","journal-title":"Exp Neurol"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0227-9","article-title":"CNS lymphatic drainage and neuroinflammation are regulated by meningeal lymphatic vasculature","volume":"21","author":"Louveau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.09.016","article-title":"Early developing B cells undergo negative selection by central nervous system-specific antigens in the meninges","volume":"54","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-021-00880-y","article-title":"Single-cell profiling of CNS border compartment leukocytes reveals that B cells and their progenitors reside in non-diseased meninges","volume":"24","author":"Schafflick","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2021.03.002","article-title":"Increased cytokine expression in the choroid plexus stroma and epithelium in response to endotoxin-induced systemic inflammation in mice","volume":"8","author":"Shimada","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicol Rep"},{"issue":"Pt 11","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3427","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awt259","article-title":"IFN-gamma-dependent activation of the brain's choroid plexus for CNS immune surveillance and repair","volume":"136","author":"Kunis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1155\/2010\/307231","article-title":"TNFalpha induces choroid plexus epithelial cell barrier alterations by apoptotic and nonapoptotic mechanisms","volume":"2010","author":"Schwerk","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Biomed Biotechnol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mvr.2018.12.001","article-title":"Oxidative stress in the choroid plexus contributes to blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier disruption during sepsis development","volume":"123","author":"Goldim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microvasc Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.06.027","article-title":"Downregulation of synapse-associated protein expression and loss of homeostatic microglial control in cerebrospinal fluid of infectious patients with delirium and patients with Alzheimer's disease","volume":"89","author":"Peters van Ton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav Immun"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1111\/nan.12502","article-title":"Pro-inflammatory activation of microglia in the brain of patients with sepsis","volume":"45","author":"Zrzavy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-2094-4-4","article-title":"Microglia activation in sepsis: a case-control study","volume":"4","author":"Lemstra","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13101453","article-title":"Microglial activation: key players in sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"13","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-025-01275-w","article-title":"NLRP3 inflammasome in neuroinflammation and central nervous system diseases","volume":"22","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Mol Immunol"},{"issue":"21","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abq7806","article-title":"Microglia mediate neurocognitive deficits by eliminating C1q-tagged synapses in sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"9","author":"Chung","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Adv"},{"issue":"6048","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1202529","article-title":"Synaptic pruning by microglia is necessary for normal brain development","volume":"333","author":"Paolicelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4397","article-title":"Microglia emerge as central players in brain disease","volume":"23","author":"Salter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7229","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-022-03027-7","article-title":"The many faces of astrocytes in the septic brain","volume":"59","author":"Danielski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6340","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-50466-y","article-title":"Adenosine triggers early astrocyte reactivity that provokes microglial responses and drives the pathogenesis of sepsis-associated encephalopathy in mice","volume":"15","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1013126","article-title":"Astrocyte-derived complement C3 facilitated microglial phagocytosis of synapses in Staphylococcus aureus-associated neurocognitive deficits","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-14118-w","article-title":"Integrated single cell analysis of blood and cerebrospinal fluid leukocytes in multiple sclerosis","volume":"11","author":"Schafflick","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2020.103044","article-title":"Exploring the pathophysiology of post-sepsis syndrome to identify therapeutic opportunities","volume":"61","author":"van der Slikke","year":"2020","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s10020-019-0132-z","article-title":"Post-sepsis syndrome - an evolving entity that afflicts survivors of sepsis","volume":"26","author":"Mostel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0161656","article-title":"Utility of CSF cytokine\/chemokines as markers of active intrathecal inflammation: comparison of demyelinating, anti-NMDAR and enteroviral encephalitis","volume":"11","author":"Kothur","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2025.1640618","article-title":"Diagnostic utility of neurogenic biomarkers in differentiating sepsis with and without associated encephalopathy: a systematic review and meta-analytic approach","volume":"16","author":"Lin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2023.156390","article-title":"Identification of IL-8 in CSF as a potential biomarker in sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"172","author":"Mao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2006.11.013","article-title":"Cytokines and acute phase response in delirium","volume":"62","author":"de Rooij","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1111\/aas.13228","article-title":"Elevated serum S-100\u03b2 in patients with septic shock is associated with delirium","volume":"63","author":"Erikson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol Scand"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7830","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-82992-6","article-title":"Cytokines and inflammatory biomarkers and their association with post-operative delirium: a meta-analysis and systematic review","volume":"15","author":"Mosharaf","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1186\/s13019-021-01529-4","article-title":"Plasma interleukin-6 is a potential predictive biomarker for postoperative delirium among acute type a aortic dissection patients treated with open surgical repair","volume":"16","author":"Lv","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Cardiothorac Surg"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10081587","article-title":"Elevated monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 as the independent risk factor of delirium after cardiac surgery. a prospective cohort study","volume":"10","author":"Ka\u017amierski","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-024-01576-9","article-title":"Blood-brain barrier disruption and sustained systemic inflammation in individuals with long COVID-associated cognitive impairment","volume":"27","author":"Greene","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26083532","article-title":"Breaking the barrier: the role of proinflammatory cytokines in BBB dysfunction","volume":"26","author":"Gryka-Marton","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2489","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-021-00757-x","article-title":"The blood-brain barrier in systemic infection and inflammation","volume":"18","author":"Galea","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Mol Immunol"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1080\/00207454.2021.1916489","article-title":"Elevated sTREM2 and NFL levels in patients with sepsis associated encephalopathy","volume":"133","author":"Orhun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Neurosci"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2783","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-025-02939-9","article-title":"Neuroinflammatory fluid biomarkers in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a systematic literature review","volume":"30","author":"Heneka","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1016\/S0197-4580(01)00233-0","article-title":"Mechanism of glial activation by S100B: involvement of the transcription factor NFkappaB","volume":"22","author":"Lam","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurobiol Aging"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2024.02.002","article-title":"Systemic inflammation relates to neuroaxonal damage associated with long-term cognitive dysfunction in COVID-19 patients","volume":"117","author":"Duindam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Behav Immun"},{"issue":"18","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26189012","article-title":"UCH-L1 in Alzheimer'S disease: a crucial player in dementia-associated mechanisms","volume":"26","author":"Porchietto","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2024.105644","article-title":"Evaluating the utility of serum NfL, GFAP, UCHL1 and tTAU as estimates of CSF levels and diagnostic instrument in neuroinflammation and multiple sclerosis","volume":"87","author":"Koerbel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mult Scler Relat Disord"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1159\/000490349","article-title":"The glymphatic system and waste clearance with brain aging: a review","volume":"65","author":"Benveniste","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gerontology"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-023-01976-6","article-title":"The association between inflammatory markers in blood and cerebrospinal fluid: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"28","author":"Gigase","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2020.09.011","article-title":"CSF and blood biomarkers in neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases: implications for treatment","volume":"41","author":"Gaetani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbac098","article-title":"Cerebrospinal fluid and blood biomarkers of neuroinflammation and blood-brain barrier in psychotic disorders and individually matched healthy controls","volume":"48","author":"Jeppesen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Schizophr Bull"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2918","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-022-01561-3","article-title":"Translocator protein (18kDa) TSPO: a new diagnostic or therapeutic target for stress-related disorders?","volume":"27","author":"Rupprecht","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-044062","article-title":"Neuroinflammation in cognitive decline post-cardiac surgery (the FOCUS study): an observational study protocol","volume":"11","author":"Peters van Ton","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2021.04.004","article-title":"Human in vivo neuroimaging to detect reprogramming of the cerebral immune response following repeated systemic inflammation","volume":"95","author":"Peters van Ton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav Immun"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1038\/jcbfm.2012.46","article-title":"Translocator protein (18 kDa) polymorphism (rs6971) explains in-vivo brain binding affinity of the PET radioligand [(18)F]-FEPPA","volume":"32","author":"Mizrahi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Cereb Blood Flow Metab"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fmre.2024.04.013","article-title":"Advances in synaptic PET imaging and intervention with synapse-targeted small-molecular drugs for dementia diagnosis and therapy","volume":"5","author":"Lu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Fundam Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2018.07.038","article-title":"PET imaging of synaptic density: a new tool for investigation of neuropsychiatric diseases","volume":"691","author":"Cai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.10.030","article-title":"Molecular anatomy of a trafficking organelle","volume":"127","author":"Takamori","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3805-10.2011","article-title":"Protein quantification at the single vesicle level reveals that a subset of synaptic vesicle proteins are trafficked with high precision","volume":"31","author":"Mutch","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1021\/ml500285t","article-title":"Radiosynthesis of (11)C-levetiracetam: a potential marker for PET imaging of SV2A expression","volume":"5","author":"Cai","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACS Med Chem Lett"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2018.05.019","article-title":"Preparation of (99m)Tc-levetiracetam intranasal microemulsion as the first radiotracer for SPECT imaging of the synaptic vesicle protein SV2A","volume":"121","author":"Rashed","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur J Pharm Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1177\/0271678X231153730","article-title":"In vivo synaptic density loss correlates with impaired functional and related structural connectivity in Alzheimer's disease","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Cereb Blood Flow Metab"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.25253","article-title":"PET imaging of synaptic density in Parkinsonian disorders","volume":"102","author":"Martin","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Neurosci Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/1855985","article-title":"Preliminary assessment of reference region quantification and reduced scanning times for [(18)F]SynVesT-1 PET in Parkinson's disease","volume":"2023","author":"Smart","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol Imaging"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/cc12899","article-title":"Pattern of brain injury in the acute setting of human septic shock","volume":"17","author":"Polito","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2158","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.110.611731","article-title":"Blood-brain barrier permeability abnormalities in vascular cognitive impairment","volume":"42","author":"Taheri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib107","series-title":"Basics of the EEG. Dynamics of neural networks","first-page":"129","author":"Putten","year":"2020"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012_bib108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1097\/00004691-199201000-00016","article-title":"The electroencephalogram in sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"9","author":"Young","year":"1992","journal-title":"J Clin Neurophysiol"}],"container-title":["Critical Care Clinics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0749070426000412?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0749070426000412?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T12:34:08Z","timestamp":1793277248000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0749070426000412"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"references-count":108,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["S0749070426000412"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012","relation":{},"ISSN":["0749-0704"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0749-0704","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Sepsis and Systemic Inflammatory Syndromes","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Critical Care Clinics","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ccc.2026.05.012","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}