{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T20:04:37Z","timestamp":1779998677709,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000030","name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000030","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","theclinics.com","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Clinics in Chest Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T21:39:46Z","timestamp":1770241186000},"page":"321-329","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Evolving Etiology of Hospital-Acquired and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"47","author":[{"given":"Richard F.","family":"Van Besien","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M. Cristina","family":"Vazquez Guillamet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2022.06.016","article-title":"Incidence, mortality, and cost trends in nonventilator hospital-acquired pneumonia in medicaid beneficiaries, 2015-2019","volume":"51","author":"Giuliano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am J Infect Control"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000005298","article-title":"Descriptive epidemiology and outcomes of nonventilated Hospital-Acquired, ventilated Hospital-Acquired, and ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia in the United States, 2012-2019","volume":"50","author":"Zilberberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"157","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib3","article-title":"Is ventilated hospital-acquired pneumonia a worse entity than ventilator-associated pneumonia?","volume":"29","author":"Vallecoccia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur Respir Rev Off J Eur Respir Soc"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.14185","article-title":"Incidence and outcomes of non-ventilator-associated hospital-acquired pneumonia in 284 US hospitals using electronic surveillance criteria","volume":"6","author":"Jones","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"issue":"18","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1732","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1801550","article-title":"Changes in prevalence of health care-associated infections in U.S. hospitals","volume":"379","author":"Magill","year":"2018","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2022.264","article-title":"Temporal trends in postoperative and ventilator-associated pneumonia in the United States","volume":"44","author":"Metersky","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(13)70081-1","article-title":"Attributable mortality of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a meta-analysis of individual patient data from randomised prevention studies","volume":"13","author":"Melsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1086\/664049","article-title":"Economic impact of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a large matched cohort","volume":"33","author":"Kollef","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e3182a66903","article-title":"When policy gets it right: variability in u.s. hospitals\u2019 diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"42","author":"Stevens","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1086\/675279","article-title":"Ventilator-associated pneumonia: overdiagnosis and treatment are common in medical and surgical intensive care units","volume":"35","author":"Nussenblatt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2020.100408","article-title":"Impact of inter-hospital transfers on the prevalence of resistant pathogens in a hospital-community system","volume":"33","author":"Piotrowska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1097\/00001432-200008000-00009","article-title":"Nosocomial pneumonia: epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and prevention","volume":"13","author":"Lode","year":"2000","journal-title":"Curr Opin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.156.5.96-04076","article-title":"Oropharyngeal or gastric colonization and nosocomial pneumonia in adult intensive care unit patients. A prospective study based on genomic DNA analysis","volume":"156","author":"Garrouste-Orgeas","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.4187\/respcare.05500725","article-title":"The pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: its relevance to developing effective strategies for prevention","volume":"50","author":"Safdar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Respir Care"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-002-1589-7","article-title":"Nosocomial pneumonia","volume":"29","author":"Johanson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S87","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-8579(93)90040-C","article-title":"Nosocomial pneumonia: pathogenesis, diagnosis, current therapy and prophylactic approach","volume":"3","author":"Giamarellou","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int J Antimicrob Agents"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(92)90042-A","article-title":"A predictive risk index for nosocomial pneumonia in the intensive care unit","volume":"93","author":"Joshi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am J Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6447","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-50805-z","article-title":"Ventilator-associated pneumonia: pathobiological heterogeneity and diagnostic challenges","volume":"15","author":"Howroyd","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03092-1","article-title":"Biofilm formation on three different endotracheal tubes: a prospective clinical trial","volume":"24","author":"Thorarinsdottir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit Care Lond Engl"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0041-1740583","article-title":"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus hospital-acquired Pneumonia\/ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"43","author":"Pickens","year":"2022","journal-title":"Semin Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2168","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06292-z","article-title":"Pulmonary infections complicating ARDS","volume":"46","author":"Luyt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib22","article-title":"Altered ecology of the respiratory tract microbiome and nosocomial pneumonia","volume":"12","author":"P\u00e9rez-Cobas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Microbiol"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2018.07.003","article-title":"The lung microbiome and its role in pneumonia","volume":"39","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin Chest Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03219-4","article-title":"The importance of airway and lung microbiome in the critically ill","volume":"24","author":"Martin-Loeches","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-017-1937-1","article-title":"Stress ulcer prophylaxis in intensive care unit patients receiving enteral nutrition: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit Care Lond Engl"},{"issue":"20","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2120","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.722","article-title":"Acid-suppressive medication use and the risk for hospital-acquired pneumonia","volume":"301","author":"Herzig","year":"2009","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1007\/s00535-023-02007-5","article-title":"Proton pump inhibitor use and risk of pneumonia: a self-controlled case series study","volume":"58","author":"Maret-Ouda","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Gastroenterol"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2020.0009","article-title":"Evaluation of the Association between Gastric Acid suppression and risk of intestinal colonization with multidrug-resistant microorganisms: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"180","author":"Willems","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"issue":"23","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2199","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1714919","article-title":"Pantoprazole in patients at risk for gastrointestinal bleeding in the ICU","volume":"379","author":"Krag","year":"2018","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2404245","article-title":"Stress ulcer prophylaxis during invasive mechanical ventilation","volume":"391","author":"Cook","year":"2024","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.09-1652","article-title":"A comparison of culture-positive and culture-negative health-care-associated pneumonia","volume":"137","author":"Labelle","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chest"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03493-w","article-title":"Epidemiology and microbiology of ventilator-associated pneumonia in COVID-19 patients: a multicenter retrospective study in 188 patients in an un-inundated French region","volume":"25","author":"Blonz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit Care Lond Engl"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2021.464","article-title":"Microbiology, empiric therapy and its impact on the outcomes of nonventilated hospital-acquired, ventilated hospital-acquired, and ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia in the United States, 2014-2019","volume":"43","author":"Zilberberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2019.296","article-title":"Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with adult healthcare-associated infections: summary of data reported to the National Healthcare Safety Network, 2015-2017","volume":"41","author":"Weiner-Lastinger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.14-2171","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in hospital-acquired gram-negative bacterial infections","volume":"147","author":"Mehrad","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chest"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1007\/s40121-023-00820-2","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in ventilator-associated pneumonia: predictive microbiology and evidence-based therapy","volume":"12","author":"Alnimr","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect Dis Ther"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00582-2017","volume":"50","author":"Torres","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"issue":"21","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2323","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.1754","article-title":"International study of the prevalence and outcomes of infection in intensive care units","volume":"302","author":"Vincent","year":"2009","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/ijn.12644","article-title":"Risk factors for multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria infection in intensive care units: a meta-analysis","volume":"24","author":"Ang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Nurs Pract"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1159\/000445022","article-title":"Antimicrobial susceptibility among European Gram-Negative and Gram-Positive isolates collected as part of the tigecycline evaluation and surveillance trial (2004-2014)","volume":"62","author":"Rodloff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chemotherapy"},{"issue":"21","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.21037\/atm.2018.09.34","article-title":"Ventilator-associated pneumonia related to ESBL-producing gram negative bacilli","volume":"6","author":"Pilmis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Transl Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2020.10.039","article-title":"Carbapenem antibiotics for the empiric treatment of nosocomial pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"159","author":"Howatt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chest"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7501","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-11061-7","article-title":"Clinical outcome of nosocomial pneumonia caused by Carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacteria in critically ill patients: a multicenter retrospective observational study","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-025-05266-1","article-title":"Incidence of hospital-acquired infections due to carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in critically ill patients in Italy: a multicentre prospective cohort study","volume":"29","author":"De Pascale","year":"2025","journal-title":"Crit Care Lond Engl"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib45","article-title":"Persistent carbapenem resistance in mechanically ventilated ICU patients: a before-and-after analysis of the COVID-19 surge","author":"Antunes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am J Infect Control"},{"issue":"166","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0119-2022","article-title":"New antibiotics for Gram-negative pneumonia","volume":"31","author":"Bassetti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur Respir Rev"},{"issue":"21","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib47","first-page":"1970","article-title":"National burden of invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections, United States, 2011","volume":"173","author":"Dantes","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6809e2","article-title":"Vital signs: trends in Staphylococcus aureus infections in veterans affairs medical centers - united States, 2005-2017","volume":"68","author":"Jones","year":"2019","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70780-7","article-title":"Global antibiotic consumption 2000 to 2010: an analysis of national pharmaceutical sales data","volume":"14","author":"Van Boeckel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib50","first-page":"1615","article-title":"Origin of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance, and their impacts on drug development: a narrative review","volume":"16","author":"Muteeb","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pharm Basel Switz"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2022.223","article-title":"The importance of viruses in ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"44","author":"Shorr","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-022-07490-4","article-title":"The contribution of hospital-acquired infections to the COVID-19 epidemic in England in the first half of 2020","volume":"22","author":"Knight","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.29441","article-title":"Assessment of hospital-onset SARS-CoV-2 infection rates and testing practices in the US, 2020-2022","volume":"6","author":"Hatfield","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03843-8","article-title":"HSV-1 reactivation is associated with an increased risk of mortality and pneumonia in critically ill COVID-19 patients","volume":"25","author":"Meyer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit Care Lond Engl"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2009.08.013","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus-1 late-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia: the importance of cytopathologic diagnosis","volume":"38","author":"Cunha","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Infect Control"},{"issue":"9395","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)14740-X","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus in the respiratory tract of critical care patients: a prospective study","volume":"362","author":"Bruynseels","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet Lond Engl"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200609-1322OC","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus lung infection in patients undergoing prolonged mechanical ventilation","volume":"175","author":"Luyt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-019-2701-5","article-title":"Impact of acyclovir use on survival of patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia and high load herpes simplex virus replication","volume":"24","author":"Schuierer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit Care Lond Engl"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofx029","article-title":"Association between cytomegalovirus reactivation and clinical outcomes in immunocompetent critically ill patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"4","author":"Lachance","year":"2017","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.10569","article-title":"Effect of ganciclovir on IL-6 levels among cytomegalovirus-seropositive adults with critical illness: a randomized clinical trial","volume":"318","author":"Limaye","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"Abstracts","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A3114","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.2025.211.Abstracts.A3114","article-title":"Ganciclovir to prevent reactivation of cytomegalovirus in patients with sepsis-associated acute respiratory failure: a phase 3 randomized placebo-controlled trial","volume":"211","author":"Stapleton","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib62","first-page":"463","article-title":"COVID-19 vs. non-COVID-19 related nosocomial pneumonias: any differences in etiology, prevalence, and mortality?","volume":"30","author":"Martin-Loeches","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr Opin Crit Care"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-020-04142-w","article-title":"Nosocomial infections associated to COVID-19 in the intensive care unit: clinical characteristics and outcome","volume":"40","author":"Bardi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000005297","article-title":"Increased incidence of ventilator-acquired pneumonia in coronavirus disease 2019 patients: a multicentric cohort study","volume":"50","author":"Vacheron","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(24)00151-6","article-title":"Influenza-associated and COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill patients","volume":"12","author":"Feys","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciu337","article-title":"Immune correlates of protection in human invasive aspergillosis","volume":"59","author":"Camargo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1764","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa010","article-title":"Influenza-associated pulmonary aspergillosis: a local or global lethal combination?","volume":"71","author":"Rijnders","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0041-1739472","article-title":"Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in Hospital and ventilator-associated pneumonias","volume":"43","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Semin Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofab091","article-title":"Invasive aspergillosis after influenza and other viral respiratory infections among intensive care unit patients in a commercially insured population in the United States, 2013\u20132018","volume":"8","author":"Toda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30274-1","article-title":"Invasive aspergillosis in patients admitted to the intensive care unit with severe influenza: a retrospective cohort study","volume":"6","author":"Schauwvlieghe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202002-0355OC","article-title":"Pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia in UK ICUs","volume":"202","author":"Loughlin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(23)00408-3","article-title":"Risk factors for COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Gioia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad546","article-title":"High burden of COVID-19-Associated pulmonary aspergillosis in severely immunocompromised patients requiring mechanical ventilation","volume":"78","author":"Feys","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis Off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib74","first-page":"722","article-title":"COVID-19-associated mucormycosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 958 cases","volume":"29","author":"\u00d6zbek","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol Infect Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad551","article-title":"Description of cryptococcosis following SARS-CoV-2 infection: a disease survey through the mycosis study group education and research consortium (MSG-19)","volume":"78","author":"Walker","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis Off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e61","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw353","article-title":"Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of America and the American thoracic Society","volume":"63","author":"Kalil","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"25","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2619","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa052904","article-title":"A randomized trial of diagnostic techniques for ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"355","year":"2006","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2022.08.2210","article-title":"Temporal trends and variation in bronchoscopy use for acute respiratory failure in the United States","volume":"163","author":"Wayne","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chest"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjresp-2014-000066","article-title":"A national survey of the diagnosis and management of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"1","author":"Browne","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMJ Open Respir Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-022-06898-5","article-title":"Bronchoscopy for diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"49","author":"Martin-Loeches","year":"2023","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-016-2876-5","article-title":"Rapid MRSA PCR on respiratory specimens from ventilated patients with suspected pneumonia: a tool to facilitate antimicrobial stewardship","volume":"36","author":"Trevino","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(22)00086-8","article-title":"Fast multiplex bacterial PCR of bronchoalveolar lavage for antibiotic stewardship in hospitalised patients with pneumonia at risk of Gram-negative bacterial infection (Flagship II): a multicentre, randomised controlled trial","volume":"10","author":"Darie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib83","article-title":"Clinical impact of a multiplex rapid diagnostic pneumonia panel in critically ill patients","volume":"3","author":"Esplund","year":"2023","journal-title":"Antimicrob Steward Healthc Epidemiol ASHE"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofad382","article-title":"Implementation of a rapid multiplex polymerase chain reaction pneumonia panel and subsequent antibiotic De-escalation","volume":"10","author":"Miller","year":"2023","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013_bib85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-024-07772-2","volume":"51","author":"Enne","year":"2025","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"}],"container-title":["Clinics in Chest Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0272523125001157?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0272523125001157?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T19:35:56Z","timestamp":1779996956000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0272523125001157"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["S0272523125001157"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013","relation":{},"ISSN":["0272-5231"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0272-5231","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"The Evolving Etiology of Hospital-Acquired and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Clinics in Chest Medicine","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ccm.2025.12.013","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}