{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T03:29:15Z","timestamp":1787110155893,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Critical Reviews in Oncology\/Hematology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T12:49:46Z","timestamp":1783601386000},"page":"105476","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Advances in diagnosis and treatment of intracranial germ cell tumors and future directions"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"225","author":[{"given":"Yiwen","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuo","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shoubo","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruining","family":"Bai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenbin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Feng","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-009-0033-z","article-title":"Challenges in management of patients with intracranial germ cell tumor and diabetes insipidus treated with cisplatin and\/or ifosfamide based chemotherapy","volume":"97","author":"Afzal","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol.."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.3171\/2018.3.JNS172520","article-title":"Placental alkaline phosphatase levels in cerebrospinal fluid can have a decisive role in the differential diagnosis of intracranial germ cell tumors","volume":"131","author":"Aihara","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/not050","article-title":"Bifocal intracranial tumors of nongerminomatous germ cell etiology: diagnostic and therapeutic implications","volume":"15","author":"Aizer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib4","first-page":"1318","article-title":"Pattern of relapse and outcome of non-metastatic germinoma patients treated with chemotherapy and limited field radiation: the SFOP experience","volume":"12","author":"Alapetite","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2002.20.3.857","article-title":"Induction chemotherapy followed by low-dose involved-field radiotherapy for intracranial germ cell tumors","volume":"20","author":"Aoyama","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-48396-7","article-title":"Ectopic activation of WNT signaling in human embryonal carcinoma cells and its effects in short- and long-term in vitro culture","volume":"9","author":"Atlasi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2908","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.1996.14.11.2908","article-title":"Chemotherapy without irradiation--a novel approach for newly diagnosed CNS germ cell tumors: results of an international cooperative trial. The First International Central Nervous System Germ Cell Tumor Study","volume":"14","author":"Balmaceda","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab270","article-title":"Phase II trial of response-based radiation therapy for patients with localized germinoma: a Children's Oncology Group study","volume":"24","author":"Bartels","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2021.672500","article-title":"Early and next-generation KIT\/PDGFRA kinase inhibitors and the future of treatment for advanced gastrointestinal stromal tumor","volume":"11","author":"Bauer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-020-03578-6","article-title":"Immune checkpoint inhibition for pediatric patients with recurrent\/refractory CNS tumors: a single institution experience","volume":"149","author":"Cacciotti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2008-1043954","article-title":"Secreting germ cell tumors of the central nervous system (CNS). First results of the cooperative German\/Italian pilot study (CNS sGCT)","volume":"209","author":"Calaminus","year":"1997","journal-title":"Klin. Padiatr."},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/nox122","article-title":"Outcome of patients with intracranial non-germinomatous germ cell tumors-lessons from the SIOP-CNS-GCT-96 trial","volume":"19","author":"Calaminus","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/not019","volume":"15","author":"Calaminus","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-015-2029-1","article-title":"Outcomes of children with central nervous system germinoma treated with multi-agent chemotherapy followed by reduced radiation","volume":"127","author":"Cheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-016-2207-9","article-title":"Utility of MRI versus tumor markers for post-treatment surveillance of marker-positive CNS germ cell tumors","volume":"129","author":"Cheung","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib16","series-title":"A Single-arm, Phase II Study of Durvalumab (MEDI4736) and Tremelimumab for Relapsed\/Refractory Germ Cell Tumors","author":"ClinicalTrials","year":"2026"},{"issue":"23","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4770","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-23-0411","article-title":"Efficacy of nivolumab in pediatric cancers with high mutation burden and mismatch repair deficiency","volume":"29","author":"Das","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"issue":"16","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.18.01480","article-title":"Serum levels of MicroRNA-371a-3p (M371 Test) as a new biomarker of testicular germ cell tumors: results of a prospective multicentric study","volume":"37","author":"Dieckmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2016.07.029","article-title":"Serum levels of MicroRNA miR-371a-3p: a sensitive and specific new biomarker for germ cell tumours","volume":"71","author":"Dieckmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Urol."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1634\/theoncologist.2008-0037","article-title":"Pediatric central nervous system germ cell tumors: a review","volume":"13","author":"Echevarr\u00eda","year":"2008","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1097\/01.coc.0000195086.47548.ef","article-title":"Phase II study of imatinib mesylate in chemotherapy refractory germ cell tumors expressing KIT","volume":"29","author":"Einhorn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Oncol."},{"issue":"34","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3283","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.19.00701","article-title":"Phase II trial of response-based radiation therapy for patients with localized cns nongerminomatous germ cell tumors: a children's Oncology Group Study","volume":"37","author":"Fangusaro","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab252","article-title":"EANO, SNO and Euracan consensus review on the current management and future development of intracranial germ cell tumors in adolescents and young adults","volume":"24","author":"Frappaz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2017.05.024","article-title":"Radiotherapy and chemotherapy plus radiation in the treatment of patients with pure intracranial germinoma: A meta-analysis","volume":"43","author":"Fu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01053275","article-title":"CT and MRI features of intracranial germ cell tumors","volume":"19","author":"Fujimaki","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-014-1247-5","article-title":"Mutually exclusive mutations of KIT and RAS are associated with KIT mRNA expression and chromosomal instability in primary intracranial pure germinomas","volume":"127","author":"Fukushima","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-017-1673-2","article-title":"Genome-wide methylation profiles in primary intracranial germ cell tumors indicate a primordial germ cell origin for germinomas","volume":"133","author":"Fukushima","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"issue":"22","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2464","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2014.59.5132","article-title":"Phase II trial assessing the ability of neoadjuvant chemotherapy with or without second-look surgery to eliminate measurable disease for nongerminomatous germ cell tumors: a children's Oncology Group Study","volume":"33","author":"Goldman","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.3171\/2015.10.PEDS15415","article-title":"Ophthalmological outcomes of patients treated for pineal region tumors","volume":"17","author":"Hankinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg. Pediatr."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-026-05665-6","article-title":"Long-term clinical outcomes and recurrence factors in intracranial germinoma","volume":"178","author":"Higashino","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/nox186","article-title":"Global DNA methylation analysis reveals miR-214-3p contributes to cisplatin resistance in pediatric intracranial nongerminomatous malignant germ cell tumors","volume":"20","author":"Hsieh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1111\/his.15155","article-title":"Whole-exome sequencing has revealed novel genetic characteristics in intracranial germ cell tumours in the Chinese","volume":"84","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Histopathology"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-016-1557-x","article-title":"Recurrent neomorphic mutations of MTOR in central nervous system and testicular germ cell tumors may be targeted for therapy","volume":"131","author":"Ichimura","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.3345\/kjp.2011.54.3.128","article-title":"Responses and adverse effects of carboplatin-based chemotherapy for pediatric intracranial germ cell tumors","volume":"54","author":"Ji","year":"2011","journal-title":"Korean J. Pediatr."},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib35","first-page":"5715","article-title":"Treatment outcome of radiation therapy for intracranial germinoma: adaptive radiation field in relation to response to chemotherapy","volume":"34","author":"Joo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anticancer. Res."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3109\/0284186X.2011.586000","article-title":"Intracranial germ cell tumours. A review with special reference to endocrine manifestations","volume":"51","author":"Jorsal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Oncol."},{"issue":"49","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17763","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0509082102","article-title":"Gene expression profiling differentiates germ cell tumors from other cancers and defines subtype-specific signatures","volume":"102","author":"Juric","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"issue":"10020","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)60694-8","article-title":"Hydrocephalus in children","volume":"387","author":"Kahle","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0b013e32833ff522","article-title":"Update on current standard treatments in central nervous system germ cell tumors","volume":"23","author":"Kamoshima","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noaa199","article-title":"So-called bifocal tumors with diabetes insipidus and negative tumor markers: are they all germinoma?","volume":"23","author":"Kanamori","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.20026","article-title":"Intensive cisplatin and cyclophosphamide-based chemotherapy without radiotherapy for intracranial germinomas: failure of a primary chemotherapy approach","volume":"43","author":"Kellie","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatr. Blood Cancer"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.21741","article-title":"The prognostic value of tumor markers in newly diagnosed patients with primary central nervous system germ cell tumors","volume":"51","author":"Kim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatr. Blood Cancer"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1007\/s00381-015-2949-2","article-title":"Solitary Langerhans cell histiocytosis located in the neurohypophysis with a positive titer HCG-\u03b2 in the cerebrospinal fluid","volume":"32","author":"Kinoshita","year":"2016","journal-title":"Childs Nerv. Syst."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1177\/0883073818772470","article-title":"Central nervous system germ cell tumors: a review of the literature","volume":"33","author":"Kong","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Child. Neurol."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.20815","article-title":"Pre-radiation chemotherapy with response-based radiation therapy in children with central nervous system germ cell tumors: a report from the Children's Oncology Group","volume":"48","author":"Kretschmar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatr. Blood Cancer"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2021.106481","article-title":"Multimodality treatment for central nervous system germ cell tumors: disease spectrum and management strategies - a tertiary care center experience from India","volume":"202","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euros.2021.02.003","article-title":"Serum small RNA sequencing and miR-375 assay do not identify the presence of pure teratoma at postchemotherapy retroperitoneal lymph node dissection","volume":"26","author":"Lafin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Urol. Open. Sci."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-022-01260-z","article-title":"Signaling pathways in brain tumors and therapeutic interventions","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal. Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noae038","article-title":"Novel molecular subtypes of intracranial germ cell tumors expand therapeutic opportunities","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-024-03575-w","article-title":"A deep learning model for differentiating paediatric intracranial germ cell tumour subtypes and predicting survival with MRI: a multicentre prospective study","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1543","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/not127","article-title":"Neuropsychological functions and quality of life in survived patients with intracranial germ cell tumors after treatment","volume":"15","author":"Liang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0194594","article-title":"PD-1\/PD-L1 expression in a series of intracranial germinoma and its association with Foxp3+ and CD8+ infiltrating lymphocytes","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS. One"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrobp.2019.10.020","article-title":"Intracranial germ cell tumors in adolescents and young adults: a 40-year multi-institutional review of outcomes","volume":"106","author":"Lo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab106","article-title":"The 2021 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: a summary","volume":"23","author":"Louis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1994","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A2194","article-title":"Primary intracranial choriocarcinoma: MR imaging findings","volume":"31","author":"Lv","year":"2010","journal-title":"AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1007\/s10143-014-0544-8","article-title":"Long-term follow-up and quality of life in patients with intracranial germinoma","volume":"37","author":"Martens","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Rev."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib57","first-page":"5758","article-title":"Pineal region tumors: pathophysiological mechanisms of presenting symptoms","volume":"13","author":"Mavridis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Transl. Res."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-020-03486-9","article-title":"Intracranial growing teratoma syndrome (iGTS): an international case series and review of the literature","volume":"147","author":"Michaiel","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib59","article-title":"Clinical utility of circulating miR-371a-3p for the management of patients with intracranial malignant germ cell tumors","volume":"2","author":"Murray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurooncol. Adv."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e470","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(15)00244-2","article-title":"Consensus on the management of intracranial germ-cell tumours","volume":"16","author":"Murray","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.2015.429","article-title":"A pipeline to quantify serum and cerebrospinal fluid microRNAs for diagnosis and detection of relapse in paediatric malignant germ-cell tumours","volume":"114","author":"Murray","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1038\/nrurol.2012.86","article-title":"Testicular cancer: a new generation of biomarkers for malignant germ cell tumours","volume":"9","author":"Murray","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Urol."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab242","article-title":"The Japan Society for Neuro-Oncology guideline on the diagnosis and treatment of central nervous system germ cell tumors","volume":"24","author":"Nakamura","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-024-01886-w","article-title":"High detection rate of circulating-tumor DNA from cerebrospinal fluid of children with central nervous system germ cell tumors","volume":"12","author":"Nakano","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2654","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdr026","article-title":"Preclinical and clinical activity of sunitinib in patients with cisplatin-refractory or multiply relapsed germ cell tumors: a Canadian Urologic Oncology Group\/German Testicular Cancer Study Group cooperative study","volume":"22","author":"Oechsle","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1038\/s41568-019-0178-9","article-title":"Human germ cell tumours from a developmental perspective","volume":"19","author":"Oosterhuis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E100","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.24567","article-title":"Feasibility of dasatinib in children and adolescents with new or recurrent central nervous system germinoma","volume":"60","author":"Osorio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Blood Cancer"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1634\/theoncologist.2000-0312","article-title":"Intracranial germ cell tumors","volume":"5","author":"Packer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab299","article-title":"Liquid biopsy detection of genomic alterations in pediatric brain tumors from cell-free DNA in peripheral blood, CSF, and urine","volume":"24","author":"Pag\u00e8s","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2911","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-09-3301","article-title":"Malignant germ cell tumors display common microRNA profiles resulting in global changes in expression of messenger RNA targets","volume":"70","author":"Palmer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.4143\/crt.2016.204","article-title":"Neurocognitive and psychological functioning of children with an intracranial germ cell tumor","volume":"49","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer Res. Treat."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.28089","article-title":"Gemcitabine, paclitaxel, and oxaliplatin (GEMPOX) in the treatment of relapsed\/refractory intracranial nongerminomatous germ cell tumors","volume":"67","author":"Perez-Somarriba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Blood Cancer"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/3.3.174","article-title":"Long-term quality of life and neuropsychologic functioning for patients with CNS germ-cell tumors: from the First International CNS Germ-Cell Tumor Study","volume":"3","author":"Sands","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab246","article-title":"12p gain is predominantly observed in non-germinomatous germ cell tumors and identifies an unfavorable subgroup of central nervous system germ cell tumors","volume":"24","author":"Satomi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-022-03915-4","article-title":"MicroRNA-profiling of miR-371\u2013373- and miR-302\/367-clusters in serum and cerebrospinal fluid identify patients with intracranial germ cell tumors","volume":"149","author":"Sch\u00f6nberger","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"issue":"34","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55026","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.10392","article-title":"CNS germinomas are characterized by global demethylation, chromosomal instability and mutational activation of the Kit-, Ras\/Raf\/Erk- and Akt-pathways","volume":"7","author":"Schulte","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2013.06.024","article-title":"Delayed diagnosis in children with intracranial germ cell tumors","volume":"163","author":"Sethi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s00381-012-1902-x","article-title":"Treatment strategy for intracranial primary pure germinoma","volume":"29","author":"Shim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Childs Nerv. Syst."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.3171\/2020.6.JNS20638","article-title":"Long-term survival in patients with primary intracranial germ cell tumors treated with surgery, platinum-based chemotherapy, and radiotherapy: a single-institution study","volume":"135","author":"Shimizu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.22381","article-title":"Primary chemotherapy for intracranial germ cell tumors: results of the third international CNS germ cell tumor study","volume":"54","author":"da Silva","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Blood Cancer"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5638","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85178-6","article-title":"Exploring genetic alterations in circulating tumor DNA from cerebrospinal fluid of pediatric medulloblastoma","volume":"11","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s11912-022-01195-2","article-title":"Advances in molecular profiling and developing clinical trials of CNS germ cell tumors: present and future directions","volume":"24","author":"Takami","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Oncol. Rep."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noac021","article-title":"Transcriptome and methylome analysis of CNS germ cell tumor finds its cell-of-origin in embryogenesis and reveals shared similarities with testicular counterparts","volume":"24","author":"Takami","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noz139","article-title":"Integrated clinical, histopathological, and molecular data analysis of 190 central nervous system germ cell tumors from the iGCT Consortium","volume":"21","author":"Takami","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuro-Oncology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.3171\/2019.10.JNS191136","article-title":"Epidemiology, natural history, and optimal management of neurohypophyseal germ cell tumors","volume":"134","author":"Takami","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2021.03.030","article-title":"The third eye sees double: cohort study of clinical presentation, histology, surgical approaches, and ophthalmic outcomes in pineal region germ cell tumors","volume":"150","author":"Takami","year":"2021","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-42842-3","article-title":"Distinct patterns of copy number alterations may predict poor outcome in central nervous system germ cell tumors","volume":"13","author":"Takami","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1002\/path.4098","article-title":"Stem cell research points the way to the cell of origin for intracranial germ cell tumours","volume":"229","author":"Tan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"issue":"26","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3077","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.21.02809","article-title":"Chromosome 3p25.3 gain is associated with cisplatin resistance and is an independent predictor of poor outcome in male malignant germ cell tumors","volume":"40","author":"Timmerman","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-018-03045-3","article-title":"Neurocognitive function, performance status, and quality of life in pediatric intracranial germ cell tumor survivors","volume":"141","author":"Tso","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ncl.2018.04.009","article-title":"Pediatric brain tumors","volume":"36","author":"Udaka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurol. Clin."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-11-132","article-title":"Pediatric primary central nervous system germ cell tumors of different prognosis groups show characteristic miRNome traits and chromosome copy number variations","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMC Genom."},{"issue":"7508","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13296","article-title":"Novel somatic and germline mutations in intracranial germ cell tumours","volume":"511","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1038\/s41379-022-01142-3","article-title":"PD-L1 and PD-1 expression in pediatric central nervous system germ cell tumors","volume":"35","author":"Woods","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mod. Pathol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-017-2513-x","article-title":"MRI features of pediatric intracranial germ cell tumor subtypes","volume":"134","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol.."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2018.09.038","article-title":"A systematic review of shunt-related extraneural metastases of primary central nervous system tumors","volume":"174","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-026-05491-w","article-title":"Immune checkpoint inhibitors in pediatric central nervous system tumors: biology, clinical experience, and translational pathways to precision immunotherapy","volume":"177","author":"Yenidogan","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1093\/jnen\/nlx106","article-title":"Type, frequency, and spatial distribution of immune cell infiltrates in CNS germinomas: evidence for inflammatory and immunosuppressive mechanisms","volume":"77","author":"Zapka","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.26861","article-title":"Adolescents and young adults with brain tumors in the context of molecular advances in neuro-oncology","volume":"65","author":"Zapotocky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Blood Cancer"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib100","article-title":"OCT3\/4 is a potential immunohistochemical biomarker for diagnosis and prognosis of primary intracranial germ cell tumors: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib101","article-title":"The clinical significance of T cell infiltration and immune checkpoint expression in central nervous system germ cell tumors","volume":"16","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476_bib102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2017.01.033","article-title":"Response to anti-programmed cell death protein-1 antibodies in men treated for platinum refractory germ cell cancer relapsed after high-dose chemotherapy and stem cell transplantation","volume":"76","author":"Zsch\u00e4bitz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"}],"container-title":["Critical Reviews in Oncology\/Hematology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S104084282600363X?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S104084282600363X?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T02:56:30Z","timestamp":1787108190000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S104084282600363X"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"references-count":102,"alternative-id":["S104084282600363X"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476","relation":{},"ISSN":["1040-8428"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1040-8428","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Advances in diagnosis and treatment of intracranial germ cell tumors and future directions","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Critical Reviews in Oncology\/Hematology","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2026.105476","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"105476"}}