{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,6]],"date-time":"2026-11-06T13:34:52Z","timestamp":1793972092278,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]],"date-time":"2024-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711929600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]],"date-time":"2024-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711929600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]],"date-time":"2024-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711929600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]],"date-time":"2024-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711929600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]],"date-time":"2024-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711929600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]],"date-time":"2024-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711929600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]],"date-time":"2024-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711929600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["theclinics.com","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,15]],"date-time":"2023-09-15T03:02:44Z","timestamp":1694746964000},"page":"133-150","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Snake Envenomation"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Lyndi L.","family":"Gilliam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2019.104729","article-title":"Snakebite in domestic animals: First global scoping review","volume":"170","author":"Bolon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2105228","article-title":"Snake Envenomation","volume":"386","author":"Seifert","year":"2022","journal-title":"N\u00a0Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib3","unstructured":"Holder K. The 4 Main Types of Venomous Snakes in the United States. az animals. Available at: https:\/\/a-z-animals.com\/blog\/the-4-main-types-of-venomous-snakes-in-the-united-states\/."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2020.08.083","article-title":"Epidemiology of fatal snakebites in the United States 1989\u20132018","volume":"45","author":"Greene","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Emerg Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ctsap.2006.10.008","article-title":"Snake Bite: Pit Vipers","volume":"21","author":"Peterson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin Tech Small Anim Pract"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1097\/00007611-199406000-00001","article-title":"Snake venom poisoning in the United States: a review of therpeutic practice","volume":"87","author":"Gold","year":"1994","journal-title":"South Med J"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib7","first-page":"988","article-title":"The management of snake venom poisoning in dogs","volume":"6","author":"Mansfield","year":"1984","journal-title":"Compend Continuing Educ Pract Vet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.me.31.020180.001335","article-title":"Snake venom poisoning in the United States","volume":"31","author":"Russell","year":"1980","journal-title":"Annu Rev Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2011.08.008","article-title":"North American Snake Envenomation in the Dog and Cat","volume":"41","author":"Gilliam","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0704(05)70373-0","article-title":"Crotalid snake envenomation","volume":"13","author":"Holstege","year":"1997","journal-title":"Crit Care Clin"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2006.06.010","article-title":"Equine laminitis: Bites by Bothrops spp cause hoof lamellar pathology in the contralateral as well as in the bitten limb","volume":"48","author":"Acosta De P\u00e9rez","year":"2006","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1866","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1996.208.11.1866","article-title":"Rattlesnake venom poisoning in horses: 32 cases (1973-1993)","volume":"208","author":"Dickinson","year":"1996","journal-title":"J\u00a0Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.238.5.631","article-title":"Rattlesnake envenomation in horses: 58 cases (1992\u20132009)","volume":"238","author":"Fielding","year":"2011","journal-title":"J\u00a0Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib14","first-page":"201","article-title":"Hemorrhagic toxins from rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) venom. Pathogenesis of hemorrhage induced by three purified toxins","volume":"93","author":"Ownby","year":"1978","journal-title":"Am J Pathol"},{"issue":"Pt 2","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1042\/bj3070411","article-title":"Molecular cloning and expression of catrocollastatin, a snake-venom protein from Crotalus atrox (wester diamondback rattlesnake) which inhibits platelet adhesion to collagen","volume":"307","author":"Zhou","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biochem J"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1006\/abbi.1996.9787","article-title":"Crovidisin, a colagen-binding protein isolated from snake venom of Crotalus viridis, prevents platelet-collagen interaction","volume":"337","author":"Liu","year":"1997","journal-title":"Arch Biochem Biophys"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib17","first-page":"144","article-title":"Thromboelastographic evaluation of hemostatic function in dogs treated for crotalid snake envenomation: TEG in dogs treated for pit viper envenomation","volume":"24","author":"Armentano","year":"2014","journal-title":"J\u00a0Vet Emerg Crit Care"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.79.5.532","article-title":"Thromboelastographic evaluation of dogs bitten by rattlesnakes native to southern California","volume":"79","author":"Lieblick","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib19","first-page":"304","article-title":"Comparative biochemistry and pharmacology of salivary gland secretions. III. Chromatographic isolation of a myocardial depressor protein (MDP) from the venom of Crotalus atrox","volume":"124","author":"Bonilla","year":"1976","journal-title":"J\u00a0Chromatogr"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib20","first-page":"889","article-title":"Pathophysiology of snake envenomation and evaluation of treatments: part 1","volume":"17","author":"Hudelson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Compend Continuing Educ Pract Vet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib21","series-title":"Guidelines for the Management of snakebites","year":"2016"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2012.01022.x","article-title":"Cardiotoxicity, Inflammation, and Immune Response after Rattlesnake Envenomation in the Horse","volume":"26","author":"Gilliam","year":"2012","journal-title":"J\u00a0Vet Intern Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2005.07.001","article-title":"Envenomations","volume":"89","author":"Singletary","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med Clin North Am"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ctsap.2006.10.005","article-title":"Snake Bite: Coral Snakes","volume":"21","author":"Peterson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin Tech Small Anim Pract"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wem.2015.01.005","article-title":"Management of a Pediatric Snake Envenomation After Presentation With a Tight Tourniquet","volume":"26","author":"Bush","year":"2015","journal-title":"Wilderness Environ Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib26","article-title":"Fatal rattlesnake envenomation in Arizona: 1969-1984","volume":"24","author":"Hardy","year":"1986","journal-title":"J\u00a0Toxicol Clin Toxicol"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3506","DOI":"10.1097\/GOX.0000000000003506","article-title":"Snake Bite Management: A Scoping Review of the Literature","volume":"9","author":"Russell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Plast Reconstr Surg - Glob Open."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1177\/030098589703400508","article-title":"Mechanisms of echinocytosis induced by Crotalus atrox venom","volume":"34","author":"Walton","year":"1997","journal-title":"Vet Pathol"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009657","article-title":"The 20-minute whole blood clotting test (20WBCT) for snakebite coagulopathy - A systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic test accuracy","volume":"15","author":"Lamb","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib30","series-title":"Rattlesnake venoms: their actions and treatment","author":"Tu","year":"1982"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib31","first-page":"1035","article-title":"Pathophysiology of snake envenomation and evaluation of treatments: part II","volume":"17","author":"Hudelson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Compend Continuing Educ Pract Vet"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.259.5.503","article-title":"Retrospective comparison of three antivenoms for the treatment of dogs with crotalid envenomation","volume":"259","author":"Carotenuto","year":"2021","journal-title":"J\u00a0Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1067\/mem.2001.113134","article-title":"Recurrence phenomena after immunoglobulin therapy for snake envenomations: Part 2. Guidelines for clinical management with crotaline fab antivenom","volume":"37","author":"Boyer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann Emerg Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2010.08.002","article-title":"Intravenous administration of equine-derived whole IgG antivenom does not induce early adverse reactions in non-envenomed horses and cows","volume":"38","author":"Estrada","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2002.220.1675","article-title":"Clinical findings associated with prairie rattlesnake bite in dogs: 100 cases (1989-1998)","volume":"220","author":"Hackett","year":"2002","journal-title":"J\u00a0Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamcollsurg.2010.12.049","article-title":"Current Management of Copperhead Snakebite","volume":"212","author":"Walker","year":"2011","journal-title":"J\u00a0Am Coll Surg"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2018.1468447","article-title":"Safety of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in copperhead snakebite patients","volume":"56","author":"PHam","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin Toxicol"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-227X-11-2","article-title":"Unified treatment algorithm for the management of crotaline snakebite in the United States: results of an evidence-informed consensus workshop","volume":"11","author":"Lavonas","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMC Emerg Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib39","first-page":"461","article-title":"Overview and controversies in the medical management of pit viper envenomation in the dog: Management of pit viper envenomation in the dog","volume":"21","author":"Armentano","year":"2011","journal-title":"J\u00a0Vet Emerg Crit Care"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11030168","article-title":"Daboia (Vipera) palaestinae Envenomation in 123 Horses: Treatment and Efficacy of Antivenom Administration","volume":"11","author":"Tirosh-Levy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10110479","article-title":"Delayed LY333013 (Oral) and LY315920 (Intravenous) Reverse Severe Neurotoxicity and Rescue Juvenile Pigs from Lethal Doses of Micrurus fulvius (Eastern Coral Snake) Venom","volume":"10","author":"Lewin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14110783","article-title":"Varespladib in the Treatment of Snakebite Envenoming: Development History and Preclinical Evidence Supporting Advancement to Clinical Trials in Patients Bitten by Venomous Snakes","volume":"14","author":"Lewin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2016.10.008","article-title":"Active immunization of cattle with a bothropic toxoid does not abrogate envenomation by Bothrops asper venom, but increases the likelihood of survival","volume":"46","author":"Herrera","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00004-13","article-title":"Antibody Responses to Natural Rattlesnake Envenomation and a Rattlesnake Toxoid Vaccine in Horses","volume":"20","author":"Gilliam","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Vaccine Immunol"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.76.3.272","volume":"76","author":"Cates","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib46","series-title":"Activated immune mechanisms of the veterinary rattlesnake vaccine and its determination of adverse reactions in canine patients","author":"Gil","year":"2022"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1580\/0953-9859-5.3.263","article-title":"Life-threatening anaphylaxis following envenomation by two different species of Crotalidae","volume":"5","author":"Ryan","year":"1994","journal-title":"J\u00a0Wilderness Med"}],"container-title":["Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0749073923000561?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0749073923000561?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T04:20:07Z","timestamp":1760070007000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0749073923000561"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["S0749073923000561"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003","relation":{},"ISSN":["0749-0739"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0749-0739","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Snake Envenomation","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cveq.2023.08.003","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}