{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T06:07:14Z","timestamp":1778825234101,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]],"date-time":"2026-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769904000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]],"date-time":"2026-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769904000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]],"date-time":"2025-12-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764720000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["-1849227"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-1849227"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000192","name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000192","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012381","name":"State of Maine Department of Marine Resources","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012381","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100017972","name":"NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100017972","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Harmful Algae"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T08:09:09Z","timestamp":1764835749000},"page":"103039","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Characterizing seasonal persistence of low levels of Pseudo-nitzschia australis in the Gulf of Maine with environmental DNA"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"152","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-9670-4065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sydney M.","family":"Greenlee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robin S.","family":"Sleith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Damian C.","family":"Brady","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter D.","family":"Countway","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"19","key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0001","first-page":"1007","article-title":"Environmental influences on domoic acid accumulation in razor clams on the Washington coast","volume":"19","author":"Adams","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Shellfish. Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/0044-8486(89)90208-1","article-title":"Domoic acid and the eastern Canadian molluscan shellfish industry","volume":"77","author":"Addison","year":"1989","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2021.102095","article-title":"Using qPCR and high-resolution sensor data to model a multi-species Pseudo-nitzschia (Bacillariophyceae) bloom in southeastern Australia","volume":"108","author":"Ajani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2009.07.005","article-title":"Intracellular domoic acid production in Pseudo-nitzschia multistriata isolated from the Gulf of Naples (Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy)","volume":"55","author":"Amato","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicon."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.3354\/meps327119","article-title":"Circulation and environmental conditions during a toxigenic Pseudo-nitzschia australis bloom in the Santa Barbara Channel","volume":"327","author":"Anderson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Calif. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0007","unstructured":"Anderson, D.M., 1995. Ecohab: the ecology and oceanography of harmful algal blooms : a national research agenda [WWW Document]. URL https:\/\/repository.library.noaa.gov (accessed 11.24.25)."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2021.101975","article-title":"Marine harmful algal blooms (HABs) in the United States: History, current status and future trends","volume":"102","author":"Anderson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.12023","article-title":"The interactive effects of temperature and nutrients on a spring phytoplankton community","volume":"67","author":"Anderson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Limnol. Ocean."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1651","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01978-10","article-title":"Quantitative PCR Coupled with Melt Curve Analysis for Detection of Selected Pseudo-nitzschia spp. (Bacillariophyceae) from the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea","volume":"77","author":"Andree","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl Env. Microbiol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1111\/jpy.12801","article-title":"Influence of sudden salinity variation on the physiology and domoic acid production by two strains of Pseudo-nitzschia australis","volume":"55","author":"Ayache","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0012","article-title":"Changing Hydrographic, Biogeochemical, and Acidification Properties in the Gulf of Maine as Measured by the Gulf of Maine North Atlantic Time Series, GNATS, Between 1998 and 2018","volume":"127","author":"Balch","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res.: Biogeosciences"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1139\/f89-156","article-title":"Pennate Diatom Nitzschia pungens as the Primary Source of Domoic Acid, a Toxin in Shellfish from Eastern Prince Edward Island, Canada","volume":"46","author":"Bates","year":"1989","journal-title":"Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0014","series-title":"Physiological Ecology of Harmful Algal Booms","first-page":"267","article-title":"Bloom Dynamics and Physiology of Domoic-Acid-Producing Pseudo-nitzschia Species","author":"Bates","year":"1998"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2018.06.001","article-title":"Pseudo-nitzschia, Nitzschia, and domoic acid: New research since 2011","volume":"79","author":"Bates","year":"2018","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.2989\/18142320609504187","article-title":"Estimates of specific toxicity in several Pseudo-nitzschia species from the Washington coast, based on culture and field studies","volume":"28","author":"Baugh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Afr. J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","article-title":"Controlling the False Discovery Rate: A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing","volume":"57","author":"Benjamini","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc.: B (Methodol.)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0018","series-title":"Physical Oceanography of the Gulf of Maine","author":"Bigelow","year":"1927"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e589","DOI":"10.1002\/edn3.589","article-title":"Optimization and application of bacterial environmental DNA and RNA isolation for qualitative and quantitative studies","volume":"6","author":"Browne","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. DNA"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1111\/jpy.13101","article-title":"Two New and Nontoxigenic Pseudo-nitzschia species (Bacillariophyceae) from Chinese Southeast Coastal Waters","volume":"57","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-018-0263-1","article-title":"Rapid coastal deoxygenation due to ocean circulation shift in the NW Atlantic","volume":"8","author":"Claret","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2019.101656","article-title":"Pseudo-nitzschia bloom dynamics in the Gulf of Maine: 2012\u20132016","volume":"88","author":"Clark","year":"2019","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2021.104493","article-title":"Investigating Pseudo-nitzschia australis introduction to the Gulf of Maine with observations and models","volume":"228","author":"Clark","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf. Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmarsys.2022.103737","article-title":"Projected effects of climate change on Pseudo-nitzschia bloom dynamics in the Gulf of Maine","volume":"230","author":"Clark","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.3354\/meps284261","article-title":"Domoic acid accumulation in the sardine Sardina pilchardus and its relationship to Pseudo-nitzschia diatom ingestion","volume":"284","author":"Costa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2011.07.005","article-title":"Detection of the toxic marine diatom Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries using the RuBisCO small subunit (rbcS) gene in two real-time RNA amplification formats","volume":"11","author":"Delaney","year":"2011","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0028","first-page":"31","article-title":"The effect of salinity on domoic acid production by the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries","volume":"133","author":"Doucette","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nova Hedwig."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunnington D (2023). _ggspatial: Spatial Data Framework for ggplot2_. doi:10.32614\/CRAN.package.ggspatial.","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.ggspatial"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2009.11.003","article-title":"Regional economic impacts of razor clam beach closures due to harmful algal blooms (HABs) on the Pacific coast of Washington","volume":"9","author":"Dyson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2015.06.009","article-title":"Development of a multiplex real-time qPCR assay for simultaneous enumeration of up to four marine toxic bloom-forming microalgal species","volume":"48","author":"Eckford-Soper","year":"2015","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2021.102124","article-title":"Genetic detection of freshwater harmful algal blooms: A review focused on the use of environmental DNA (eDNA) in Microcystis aeruginosa and Prymnesium parvum","volume":"110","author":"Feist","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr2.2013.06.022","article-title":"Diversity and toxicity of the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia Peragallo in the Gulf of Maine, Northwestern Atlantic Ocean","volume":"103","author":"Fernandes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. II: Top. Stud. Oceanogr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2008.0118","article-title":"Species detection using environmental DNA from water samples","volume":"4","author":"Ficetola","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biol. Lett."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243570","article-title":"An assessment of temporal, spatial and taxonomic trends in harmful algal toxin exposure in stranded marine mammals from the U.S. New England coast","volume":"16","author":"Fire","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1007\/s00227-009-1383-y","article-title":"Development and environmental application of a genus-specific quantitative PCR approach for Pseudo-nitzschia species","volume":"157","author":"Fitzpatrick","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567445","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2020.567445","article-title":"Changing Physical Conditions and Lower and Upper Trophic Level Responses on the US Northeast Shelf","volume":"7","author":"Friedland","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0022-3646.1992.00439.x","article-title":"An Outbreak of Domoic Acid Poisoning Attributed to the Pennate Diatom Pseudo-nitzschia australis","volume":"28","author":"Fritz","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.2216\/i0031-8884-36-6-419.1","article-title":"The occurrence of the toxic diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia (Bacillariophyceae) on the West Coast of the USA, 1920\u20131996: a review","volume":"36","author":"Fryxell","year":"1997","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14144","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-11567-5","article-title":"Suitcase Lab: new, portable, and deployable equipment for rapid detection of specific harmful algae in Chilean coastal waters","volume":"28","author":"Fujiyoshi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1029\/2024MS004580","article-title":"Physical Drivers and Biogeochemical Effects of the Projected Decline of the Shelfbreak Jet in the Northwest North Atlantic Ocean","volume":"16","author":"Garcia-Suarez","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Adv. Model. Earth. Syst."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0022-3646.1992.00604.x","article-title":"Confirmation of domoic acid production by Pseudo-nitzschia australis (Bacillariophyceae) cultures","volume":"28","author":"Garrison","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2021.101981","article-title":"Domoic acid and saxitoxin in seabirds in the United States between 2007 and 2018","volume":"103","author":"Gibble","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s43247-021-00143-5","article-title":"Changes in the Gulf Stream preceded rapid warming of the Northwest Atlantic Shelf","volume":"2","author":"Gon\u00e7alves Neto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun Earth Env."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v040.i03","article-title":"Dates and Times Made Easy with lubridate","volume":"40","author":"Grolemund","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0045","unstructured":"Gulf of Maine Research Institute, 2024. Gulf of Maine Warming Update: Fall 2024 www.gmri.org\/stories\/gulf-of-maine-warming-update-fall-2024."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0046","unstructured":"Gulf of Maine Research Institute, 2025. Gulf of Maine Warming Update: Winter 2024-25 https:\/\/gmri.org\/stories\/gulf-of-maine-warming-update-winter-202425."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0047","unstructured":"Gulland, F.M.D., 2000. Domoic acid toxicity in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) stranded along the central California coast, May-October 1998 : report to the National Marine Fisheries Service Working Group on Unusual Marine Mammal Mortality Events [WWW Document]. URL https:\/\/repository.library.noaa.gov (accessed 11.24.25)."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/S1568-9883(02)00014-8","article-title":"Are most of the domoic acid-producing species of the diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia cosmopolites?","volume":"1","author":"Hasle","year":"2002","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0049","series-title":"Identifying Marine Phytoplankton","first-page":"5","article-title":"Marine diatoms","author":"Hasle","year":"1997"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxcx.2019.100011","article-title":"Development of a TaqMan qPCR assay for detection of Alexandrium spp and application to harmful algal bloom monitoring","volume":"2","author":"Hatfield","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxicon. X."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2008.00518.x","article-title":"Inter- and intraspecific community structure within the diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia (Bacillariophyceae)","volume":"44","author":"Hubbard","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-023-03127-4","article-title":"Metabarcoding analysis of the composition and spatial\u2013temporal dynamics of Pseudo-nitzschia species in Jiaozhou Bay, China","volume":"36","author":"He","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.3354\/meps10820","article-title":"Molecular characterization of Pseudo-nitzschia community structure and species ecology in a hydrographically complex estuarine system (Puget Sound, Washington, USA)","volume":"507","author":"Hubbard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0282794","article-title":"Spatiotemporal transitions in Pseudo-nitzschia species assemblages and domoic acid along the Alaska coast","volume":"18","author":"Hubbard","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2004.10.001","article-title":"Diversity and distribution of epibiotic bacteria on Pseudo- nitzschia multiseries (Bacillariophyceae) in culture, and comparison with those on diatoms in native seawater","volume":"4","author":"Kaczmarska","year":"2005","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kassambara, A., 2023a. _ggcorrplot: Visualization of a Correlation Matrix using 'ggplot2\u2032_. doi:10.32614\/CRAN.package.ggcorrplot.","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.ggcorrplot"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kassambara, A., 2023b. _ggpubr: 'ggplot2\u2032 Based Publication Ready Plots_. doi:10.32614\/CRAN.package.ggpubr.","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.ggpubr"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2021.102032","article-title":"Hiding in plain sight: Shellfish-killing phytoplankton in Washington State","volume":"105","author":"King","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1002\/edn3.29","article-title":"Reporting the limits of detection and quantification for environmental DNA assays","volume":"2","author":"Klymus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. DNA"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0092","article-title":"Portable DNA extraction and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for the on-site detection of white spot syndrome virus (WSSV)","volume":"596","author":"Kumar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1522-7189(199905\/06)7:3<85::AID-NT39>3.0.CO;2-Q","article-title":"Detection of domoic acid in northern anchovies and California sea lions associated with an unusual mortality event","volume":"7","author":"Lefebvre","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nat. Toxins."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2016.01.007","article-title":"Prevalence of algal toxins in Alaskan marine mammals foraging in a changing arctic and subarctic environment","volume":"55","author":"Lefebvre","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.2216\/11-37.1","article-title":"Pseudo-nitzschia (Bacillariophyceae) species, domoic acid and amnesic shellfish poisoning: revisiting previous paradigms","volume":"51","author":"Lelong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0061","unstructured":"Lewis, B.J., 2023. DMR Biotoxin Monitoring Guidance Document for Bivalve Shellfish Aquaculture. https:\/\/www.maine.gov\/dmr\/sites\/maine.gov.dmr\/files\/inline-files\/Biotoxin%20Guidance%202023.pdf."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2012.01132.x","article-title":"Cryptic and pseudo-cryptic diversity in diatoms- With descriptions of Pseudo-nitzschia hasleana sp. nov. And P. fryxelliana sp. nov.1","volume":"48","author":"Lundholm","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Phycol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2010.03.001","article-title":"A 100-year record of changing Pseudo-nitzschia species in a sill-fjord in Denmark related to nitrogen loading and temperature","volume":"9","author":"Lundholm","year":"2010","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3354\/meps281001","article-title":"Environmental conditions and phytoplankton dynamics associated with Pseudo-nitzschia abundance and domoic acid in the Juan de Fuca eddy","volume":"281","author":"Marchetti","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3941","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-7-3941-2010","article-title":"Response of Ocean Phytoplankton Community Structure to Climate Change over the 21st Century: Partitioning the Effects of Nutrients, Temperature and Light","volume":"7","author":"Marinov","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biogeosciences."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0066","unstructured":"Maine Department of Marine Resources, 2025a. Maine 2020-2024 Landings (live pounds and value) by Species. https:\/\/www.maine.gov\/dmr\/sites\/maine.gov.dmr\/files\/inline-files\/LandingsBySpecies.Table_.pdf."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0067","unstructured":"Maine Department of Marine Resources, 2025b. 2015-2024 Maine Department of Marine Resources Phytoplankton Data. [Compiled DMR data]. https:\/\/www.maine.gov\/dmr\/fisheries\/shellfish."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0068","series-title":"Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea","first-page":"613","article-title":"Distribution and domoic acid content of Nitzschia pseudodelicatissima in the Bay of Fundy","author":"Martin","year":"1993"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0069","first-page":"366-10,376","article-title":"An unprecedented coastwide toxic algal bloom linked to anomalous ocean conditions","volume":"43","author":"McCabe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.3354\/ame01148","article-title":"Genetic diversity of eukaryotic ultraphytoplankton in the Gulf of Naples during an annual cycle","volume":"50","author":"McDonald","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aquat. Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2007.03.003","article-title":"Identifying Pseudo-nitzschia species in natural samples using genus-specific PCR primers and clone libraries","volume":"6","author":"McDonald","year":"2007","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib120","unstructured":"Merkes, C.M., Klymus, K.E., Allison, M., Goldberg, C.S., Helbin, C., Hunter, M.E., Jackson, C.A., Lance, R., Mangan, A., Monroe, E.M., Piagio, A., Stokdyk, J.P., Wilson, C., Richter, C.A., 2019. Reporting the limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) for environmental DNA assays. U.S. Geological Survey data release. 10.5066\/P9AKHU1R."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2020.101799","article-title":"Harmful algal blooms and coastal communities: Socioeconomic impacts and actions taken to cope with the 2015 U.S. West Coast domoic acid event","volume":"96","author":"Moore","year":"2020","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S4","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-7-S2-S4","article-title":"Impacts of climate variability and future climate change on harmful algal blooms and human health","volume":"7","author":"Moore","year":"2008","journal-title":"Env. Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0075","first-page":"33","article-title":"Species-specific detection of six Alexandrium species from single vegetative cells by a loop-mediated isothermal amplification method","volume":"5","author":"Nagai","year":"2013","journal-title":"DNA Test."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2015.10.014","article-title":"Easy detection of multiple Alexandrium species using DNA chromatography chip","volume":"51","author":"Nagai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.3800\/pbr.12.248","article-title":"An attempt to semi-quantify potentially toxic diatoms of the genus Pseudo-nitzschia in Tokyo Bay, Japan by using massively parallel sequencing technology","volume":"12","author":"Nagai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Plankton Benthos Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1111\/jse.13016","article-title":"Morphology, molecular phylogeny and biogeography revealed two new Pseudo-nitzschia (Bacillariophyceae) species in Chinese waters","volume":"62","author":"Niu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Syst. Evol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2024.102602","article-title":"A Pseudo-nitzschia metabarcoding approach with a calibrated ITS1 reference sequence database applied in the Taiwan Strait","volume":"133","author":"Niu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Harmful. Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e63","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/28.12.e63","article-title":"Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA","volume":"28","author":"Notomi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2021.102096","article-title":"Recent developments in quantitative PCR for monitoring harmful marine microalgae","volume":"108","author":"Pearson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1093\/plankt\/fbs093","article-title":"Toxic Pseudo-nitzschia spp. in the northwestern Adriatic Sea: characterization of species composition by genetic and molecular quantitative analyses","volume":"35","author":"Penna","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Plankton. Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6851","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-013-1519-y","article-title":"The quantitative real-time PCR applications in the monitoring of marine harmful algal bloom (HAB) species","volume":"20","author":"Penna","year":"2013","journal-title":"Env. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.32614\/RJ-2018-009","article-title":"Simple Features for R: Standardized Support for Spatial Vector Data","volume":"10","author":"Pebesma","year":"2018","journal-title":"R. J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0085","series-title":"Spatial Data Science: With Applications in R","author":"Pebesma","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199006213222504","article-title":"An outbreak of toxic encephalopathy caused by eating mussels contaminated with domoic acid","volume":"322","author":"Perl","year":"1990","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0087","first-page":"4259","article-title":"A high resolution melting method for the molecular identification of the potentially toxic diatom Pseudo-nitzschia spp","volume":"7","author":"Pugliese","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mediterr. Sea, Sci Rep"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robinson, D., 2020. fuzzyjoin: Join Tables Together on Inexact Matching. doi:10.32614\/CRAN.package.fuzzyjoin.","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.fuzzyjoin"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2024.102738","article-title":"Connectivity of toxigenic Pseudo-nitzschia species assemblages between the Northeast U.S. continental shelf and an adjacent estuary","volume":"139","author":"Roche","year":"2024","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2022.889840","article-title":"A Decade of Time Series Sampling Reveals Thermal Variation and Shifts in Pseudo-nitzschia Species Composition That Contribute to Harmful Algal Blooms in an Eastern US Estuary","volume":"9","author":"Roche","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5571","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL072637","article-title":"Causality of an extreme harmful algal bloom in Monterey Bay, California, during the 2014\u20132016 northeast Pacific warm anomaly","volume":"44","author":"Ryan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1038\/47481","article-title":"Mortality of sea lions along the central California coast linked to a toxic diatom bloom","volume":"403","author":"Scholin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1093\/plankt\/fbt051","article-title":"Coastal upwelling linked to toxic Pseudo-nitzschia australis blooms in Los Angeles coastal waters, 2005\u20132007","volume":"35","author":"Schnetzer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Plankton. Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.2216\/i0031-8884-35-3-190.1","article-title":"Identification of Pseudo-nitzschia australis (Bacillariophyceae) using rRNA-targeted probes in whole cell and sandwich hybridization formats","volume":"35","author":"Scholin","year":"1996","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0096","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1680","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.1994.39.7.1680","article-title":"The impact of light intensity and daylength on silicate and nitrate competition among marine phytoplankton","volume":"39","author":"Sommer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0097","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2341","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.12189","article-title":"Emerging harmful algal blooms caused by distinct seasonal assemblages of a toxic diatom","volume":"67","author":"Sterling","year":"2022","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0098","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2009.01.003","article-title":"Intra- and interspecies differences in growth and toxicity of Pseudo-nitzschia while using different nitrogen sources","volume":"8","author":"Thessen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0099","first-page":"48","article-title":"Seasonal trends and phenology shifts in sea surface temperature on the North American northeastern continental shelf","volume":"5","author":"Thomas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Elem.: Sci. Anthr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pocean.2023.103030","article-title":"Warming waters of the Gulf of Maine: The role of Shelf, Slope and Gulf Stream Water masses","volume":"215","author":"Townsend","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prog. Oceanogr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2017.07.005","article-title":"Nutrient ratios influence variability in Pseudo-nitzschia species diversity and particulate domoic acid production in the Bay of Seine (France)","volume":"68","author":"Thorel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2000.45.8.1818","article-title":"Domoic acid production near California coastal upwelling zones, June 1998","volume":"45","author":"Trainer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2011.10.025","article-title":"Pseudo-nitzschia physiological ecology, phylogeny, toxicity, monitoring and impacts on ecosystem health","volume":"14","author":"Trainer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2006.12.001","article-title":"Recent domoic acid closures of shellfish harvest areas in Washington State inland waterways","volume":"6","author":"Trainer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1438","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2002.47.5.1438","article-title":"Biological and physical dynamics of domoic acid production off the Washington coast","volume":"47","author":"Trainer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2009.54.1.0289","article-title":"Variability of Pseudo-nitzschia and domoic acid in the Juan de Fuca eddy region and its adjacent shelves","volume":"54","author":"Trainer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2019.03.009","article-title":"Pelagic harmful algal blooms and climate change: Lessons from nature\u2019s experiments with extremes","volume":"91","author":"Trainer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2005.56","article-title":"Monitoring Approaches for Early Warning of Domoic Acid Events in Washington State","volume":"18","author":"Trainer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2007.10.001","article-title":"Detection of Pseudo-nitzschia (Bacillariophyceae) species and amnesic shellfish toxins in Scottish coastal waters using oligonucleotide probes and the Jellet Rapid TestTM","volume":"7","author":"Turrell","year":"2008","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1002\/nt.2620020408","article-title":"Occurrence of domoic acid in Washington state razor clams (Siliqua patula) during 1991-1993","volume":"2","author":"Wekell","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nat Toxins"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0111","series-title":"ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis","author":"Wickham","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wickham, H., Fran\u00e7ois, R., Henry, L., M\u00fcller, K., Vaughan, D., 2023. dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation. doi:10.32614\/CRAN.package.dplyr.","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.dplyr"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wickham, H., Vaughan, D., Girlich M., 2024. tidyr: Tidy Messy Data. doi:10.32614\/CRAN.package.tidyr.","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.tidyr"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2021.102030","article-title":"Effects of ocean acidification on the growth, photosynthetic performance, and domoic acid production of the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia australis from the California Current System","volume":"107","author":"Wingert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"issue":"54","key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0115","first-page":"62","article-title":"Epidemiology of domoic acid poisoning in brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) and Brandt\u2019s cormorants (Phalacrocorax penicillatus) in California","volume":"24","author":"Work","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Zoo Wildl. Med."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1139\/v89-075","article-title":"Identification of domoic acid, a neuroexcitatory amino acid, in toxic mussels from eastern Prince Edward Island","volume":"67","author":"Wright","year":"1989","journal-title":"Can, J. Chem"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039_bib0117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2017.06.004","article-title":"Understanding the blob bloom: Warming increases toxicity and abundance of the harmful bloom diatom Pseudo-nitzschia in California coastal waters","volume":"67","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"}],"container-title":["Harmful Algae"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1568988325002409?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1568988325002409?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T05:11:20Z","timestamp":1778821880000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1568988325002409"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"references-count":118,"alternative-id":["S1568988325002409"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039","relation":{},"ISSN":["1568-9883"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1568-9883","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Characterizing seasonal persistence of low levels of Pseudo-nitzschia australis in the Gulf of Maine with environmental DNA","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Harmful Algae","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.hal.2025.103039","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"103039"}}