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There is also accumulating evidence that \u03b1\u2010amino\u20103\u2010hydroxy\u20105\u2010methyl\u20104\u2010isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor antagonists and group II metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) agonists attenuate opiate withdrawal. However, most existing data are derived from adult animal models. Glutamate receptor types undergo dramatic developmental changes during early life. Thus, the pharmacological effects on opiate withdrawal of NMDA receptor, AMPA receptor, and mGluR antagonists in the developing organism may not be comparable to those in the adult. Indeed, NMDA receptor antagonists do not block morphine tolerance or withdrawal in the 7\u2010day\u2010old rat, but are partially effective in the 14\u2010day\u2010old, and fully effective in the 21\u2010day\u2010old. Thus, there is a transition period around the second post\u2010natal week for NMDA receptor antagonists to suppress opiate tolerance and withdrawal. A combination of in vivo and in vitro assays was used in the present studies to test the effect of drugs acting on AMPA and group II mGlu receptors on morphine withdrawal in rats at 7, 14, and 21 days of age. These ages represent the critical periods when various glutamate receptor subunits undergo differential change. In contrast to NMDA receptor antagonists\u2019 early ineffectivness in suppressing morphine withdrawal, the AMPA receptor antagonist and the group II mGluR agonists were effective at all ages tested. Thus, for the human infant patient, pharmacotherapies to reduce opiate tolerance and withdrawal should focus on non\u2010NMDA ionotropic and metabotropic receptors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdevneu.2004.06.005","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,8,13]],"date-time":"2004-08-13T14:20:05Z","timestamp":1092406805000},"page":"379-395","update-policy":"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["The role of AMPA and metabotropic glutamate receptors on morphine withdrawal in infant rats"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Hongbo","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biopsychology Doctoral Program, Department of Psychology Hunter College City University of New York 695 Park Avenue New York NY 10021 USA"},{"name":"Division of Developmental Psychobiology New York State Psychiatric Institute Columbia University College of Medicine New York NY 10032 USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gordon A.","family":"Barr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biopsychology Doctoral Program, Department of Psychology Hunter College City University of New York 695 Park Avenue New York NY 10021 USA"},{"name":"Division of Developmental Psychobiology New York State Psychiatric Institute Columbia University College of Medicine New York NY 10032 USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2004,8,11]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_5_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143A","DOI":"10.1097\/00002826-199201001-00077","article-title":"Dual mechanisms of opiate dependence in the locus coeruleus","volume":"15","author":"Aghajanian G.K.","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clin. 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