{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T04:07:06Z","timestamp":1775621226789,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,27]],"date-time":"2026-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1795737600000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":330,"URL":"http:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/open-access\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000278","name":"Department for International Development, UK Government","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000278","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000053","name":"National Eye Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NTDSC 062"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NTDSC 062"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000053","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001316","name":"Abbott Laboratories","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001316","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100017433","name":"All May See Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100017433","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001818","name":"Research to Prevent Blindness","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001818","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000200","name":"United States Agency for International Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000200","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T19:54:29Z","timestamp":1764273269000},"page":"114718","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Effect of water, sanitation, and hygiene on childhood growth in Ethiopia: a cluster-randomized trial"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"271","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1972-782X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tahvi","family":"Frank","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Isabel J.B.","family":"Thompson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4967-9627","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Solomon","family":"Aragie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9887-5993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dionna M.","family":"Wittberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wondyifraw","family":"Tadesse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Adane","family":"Dagnew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dagnachew","family":"Hailu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2116-4656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jason S.","family":"Melo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0736-2955","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Taye","family":"Zeru","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zerihun","family":"Tadesse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Benjamin F.","family":"Arnold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Matthew C.","family":"Freeman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5741-8537","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Scott D.","family":"Nash","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4057-9411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"E Kelly","family":"Callahan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Travis C.","family":"Porco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thomas M.","family":"Lietman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7118-1457","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeremy D.","family":"Keenan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.16-0541","article-title":"Is using a latrine \u201cA strange thing to do\u201d? A mixed-methods study of sanitation preference and behaviors in rural Ethiopia","volume":"96","author":"Aiemjoy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005099","article-title":"\u201cif an eye is washed properly, it means it would see clearly\u201d: a mixed methods study of face washing knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors in rural Ethiopia","volume":"10","author":"Aiemjoy","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.21.285915","article-title":"Changing hygiene behaviours: a cluster-randomized trial, Ethiopia","volume":"99","author":"Aragie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.21.285915","article-title":"Changing hygiene behaviours: a cluster-randomized trial, Ethiopia","volume":"99","author":"Aragie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e87","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00409-5","article-title":"Water, sanitation, and hygiene for control of trachoma in Ethiopia (WUHA): a two-arm, parallel-group, cluster-randomised trial","volume":"10","author":"Aragie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Global Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.39351","article-title":"Effect of mass azithromycin distributions on childhood growth in niger: a cluster-randomized trial","volume":"4","author":"Arzika","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06418-5","article-title":"Early-childhood linear growth faltering in low- and middle-income countries","volume":"621","author":"Benjamin-Chung","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuy068","article-title":"Environmental enteric dysfunction and child stunting","volume":"77","author":"Budge","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"issue":"Suppl. 1","key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1111\/mcn.12258","article-title":"Can water, sanitation and hygiene help eliminate stunting? Current evidence and policy implications","volume":"12","author":"Cumming","year":"2016","journal-title":"Matern. Child Nutr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002164","article-title":"Risk factors for childhood stunting in 137 developing countries: a comparative risk assessment analysis at global, regional, and country levels","volume":"13","author":"Danaei","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD009382.pub2","article-title":"Interventions to improve water quality and supply, sanitation and hygiene practices, and their effects on the nutritional status of children","author":"Dangour","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD009382"},{"issue":"Suppl. 1","key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8709.2007.00124.x","article-title":"Systematic review of the efficacy and effectiveness of complementary feeding interventions in developing countries","volume":"4","author":"Dewey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Matern. Child Nutr."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1746","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980012001115","article-title":"An evaluation of an operations research project to reduce childhood stunting in a food-insecure area in Ethiopia","volume":"15","author":"Fenn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyv368","article-title":"I get height with a little help from my friends: herd protection from sanitation on child growth in rural Ecuador","volume":"45","author":"Fuller","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2162","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00933-4","article-title":"Global burden and strength of evidence for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and 811 subnational locations, 1990-2021: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"403","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-73572-5","article-title":"Spatial heterogeneity and factors influencing stunting and severe stunting among under-5 children in Ethiopia: spatial and multilevel analysis","volume":"10","author":"Hailu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib17","series-title":"World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 6580. Washington, DC","article-title":"Village sanitation and children's human capital: evidence from a randomized experiment by the Maharashtra government","author":"Hammer","year":"2013"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2016-311050","article-title":"Evidence-based approaches to childhood stunting in low and middle income countries: a systematic review","volume":"102","author":"Hossain","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60950-8","article-title":"Child undernutrition, tropical enteropathy, toilets, and handwashing","volume":"374","author":"Humphrey","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e132","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(18)30374-7","article-title":"Independent and combined effects of improved water, sanitation, and hygiene, and improved complementary feeding, on child stunting and anaemia in rural Zimbabwe: a cluster-randomised trial","volume":"7","author":"Humphrey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Global Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e302","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30490-4","article-title":"Effects of water quality, sanitation, handwashing, and nutritional interventions on diarrhoea and child growth in rural Bangladesh: a cluster randomised controlled trial","volume":"6","author":"Luby","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Global Health"},{"issue":"Suppl. 7","key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S703","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ845","article-title":"Design of an intervention to minimize ingestion of fecal microbes by young children in rural Zimbabwe","volume":"61","author":"Mbuya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06501-x","article-title":"Causes and consequences of child growth faltering in low-resource settings","volume":"621","author":"Mertens","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.12-0568","article-title":"Formative research on hygiene behaviors and geophagy among infants and young children and implications of exposure to fecal bacteria","volume":"89","author":"Ngure","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e316","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(18)30005-6","article-title":"Effects of water quality, sanitation, handwashing, and nutritional interventions on diarrhoea and child growth in rural Kenya: a cluster-randomised controlled trial","volume":"6","author":"Null","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Global Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e701","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(15)00144-8","article-title":"Effect of a community-led sanitation intervention on child diarrhoea and child growth in rural Mali: a cluster-randomised controlled trial","volume":"3","author":"Pickering","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Global Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1179\/2046905514Y.0000000158","article-title":"The stunting syndrome in developing countries","volume":"34","author":"Prendergast","year":"2014","journal-title":"Paediatr. Int. Child Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1266","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2014-3111","article-title":"Linear growth and child development in low- and middle-income countries: a meta-analysis","volume":"135","author":"Sudfeld","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/1478-4491-11-39","article-title":"Human resource development for a community-based health extension program: a case study from Ethiopia","volume":"11","author":"Teklehaimanot","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Resour. Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conctc.2018.03.008","article-title":"Different ways to estimate treatment effects in randomized controlled trials","volume":"10","author":"Twisk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cont Clin Trial Comm"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib32","series-title":"Strategy for Improved Nutrition of Children and Women in Developing Countries. New York","year":"1990"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib33","first-page":"76","article-title":"WHO child growth standards based on length\/height, weight and age","volume":"450","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr. Suppl."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-039529","article-title":"WASH upgrades for health in amhara (WUHA): study protocol for a cluster-randomised trial in Ethiopia","volume":"11","author":"Wittberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12331","article-title":"Assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low- and middle-income settings: systematic review and meta-regression","volume":"19","author":"Wolf","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1438463925002007?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1438463925002007?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T10:11:23Z","timestamp":1773828683000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1438463925002007"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"references-count":34,"alternative-id":["S1438463925002007"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718","relation":{},"ISSN":["1438-4639"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1438-4639","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Effect of water, sanitation, and hygiene on childhood growth in Ethiopia: a cluster-randomized trial","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114718","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2025 Elsevier GmbH. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"114718"}}