{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T11:29:09Z","timestamp":1793359749074,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1793491200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1793491200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1793491200000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1793491200000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1793491200000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1793491200000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1793491200000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004242","name":"Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004242","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Information Processing &amp; Management"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T11:01:53Z","timestamp":1779188513000},"page":"104844","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"special_numbering":"PB","title":["Data ethics in training large language models: A systematic review of machine-learning strategies and AI governance frameworks"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"63","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5511-8909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ghadah","family":"Aldehim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Syed Faisal Abbas","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad Amir","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tehseen","family":"Mazhar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wasim","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdul Khader Jilani","family":"Saudagar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Shahid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Habib","family":"Hamam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0088","series-title":"Informatics","article-title":"Ethical challenges and solutions of generative AI: An interdisciplinary perspective","author":"Al-Kfairy","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0068","series-title":"2024 5th International Conference on Intelligent Communication Technologies and Virtual Mobile Networks (ICICV)","article-title":"Ethical considerations in explainable AI: Balancing transparency and user privacy in English language-based virtual assistants","author":"Alijoyo","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0066","article-title":"Towards publicly accountable frontier LLMs: Building an external scrutiny ecosystem under the ASPIRE framework","author":"Anderljung","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0021","series-title":"Cambridge Forum on AI: Law and Governance","article-title":"From principles to practice: The case for coordinated international LLMs supervision","author":"Borgogno","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0101","article-title":"Towards robust and parameter-efficient knowledge unlearning for llms","author":"Cha","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0061","article-title":"Modeling emotions and ethics with large language models","author":"Chang","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0011","article-title":"A survey on large language models for critical societal domains: Finance, healthcare, and law","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0077","article-title":"Harnessing value from data science in business: ensuring explainability and fairness of solutions","author":"Chomiak","year":"2021","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0093","article-title":"Harnessing value from data science in business: ensuring explainability and fairness of solutions","author":"Chomiak","year":"2021","journal-title":"ArXiv"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169170","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3498704","article-title":"Failure management overview in optical networks","volume":"12","author":"Cruzes","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0013","series-title":"Proceedings of the 30th ACM SIGKDD conference on knowledge discovery and data mining","article-title":"Bias and unfairness in information retrieval systems: New challenges in the llm era","author":"Dai","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0065","article-title":"Can we trust AI agents? a case study of an LLM-based multi-agent system for ethical AI","author":"de Cerqueira","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0029","article-title":"Deconstructing The Ethics of Large Language Models from Long-standing Issues to New-emerging Dilemmas: A Survey","author":"Deng","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv e-prints. arXiv preprint"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4745","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-025-00797-3","article-title":"Deconstructing the ethics of large language models from long-standing issues to new-emerging dilemmas: A survey","volume":"5","author":"Deng","year":"2025","journal-title":"AI and Ethics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0071","series-title":"Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)","article-title":"Know Your Mistakes: Towards Preventing Overreliance on Task-Oriented Conversational AI Through Accountability Modeling","author":"Dey","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0017","series-title":"Proceedings of the big picture workshop","article-title":"Large language models as SocioTechnical systems","author":"Dhole","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.62802\/ytst2927","article-title":"Legal frameworks for AI regulations","volume":"8","author":"Dokumac\u0131","year":"2024","journal-title":"Human Computer Interaction"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0003","series-title":"2024 6th International Conference on Computer Science and Technologies in Education (CSTE)","article-title":"Large language models in education: A systematic review","author":"Dong","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0037","first-page":"219","article-title":"Privacy of personal data in the generative AI data lifecycle","volume":"13","author":"Duffourc","year":"2023","journal-title":"NYU J. Intell. Prop. & Ent. L.,"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0027","series-title":"2024 IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine (BIBM)","article-title":"Exploring the ethical challenges of large language models in emergency medicine: a comparative international review","author":"Elbattah","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0041","series-title":"Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Multi-lingual Representation Learning (MRL)","article-title":"Geographic and geopolitical biases of language models","author":"Faisal","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0045","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 7th Artificial Intelligence and Cloud Computing Conference","article-title":"Towards resilient and efficient llms: A comparative study of efficiency, performance, and adversarial robustness","author":"Fan","year":"2024"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3777382","article-title":"Towards trustworthy AI: a review of ethical and robust large language models","volume":"58","author":"Ferdaus","year":"2026","journal-title":"ACM Computing Surveys"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2773","DOI":"10.3390\/ai5040134","article-title":"Securing sensitive data in large language models","volume":"5","author":"Feretzakis","year":"2024","journal-title":"AI"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.3390\/info15060345","article-title":"Large language models (LLMs) in engineering education: A systematic review and suggestions for practical adoption","volume":"15","author":"Filippi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Information"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e662","DOI":"10.1016\/S2589-7500(24)00124-9","article-title":"A future role for health applications of large language models depends on regulators enforcing safety standards","volume":"6","author":"Freyer","year":"2024","journal-title":"The Lancet Digital Health"},{"issue":"22","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/app132212497","article-title":"Relevance of machine learning techniques in water infrastructure integrity and quality: a review powered by natural language processing","volume":"13","author":"Garc\u00eda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Applied Sciences"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0030","article-title":"The Impact of Large Language Models in Academia: from Writing to Speaking","author":"Geng","year":"2024","journal-title":"ArXiv"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60682","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3394243","article-title":"Ethical Considerations in the Use of ChatGPT: An Exploration Through the Lens of Five Moral Dimensions","volume":"12","author":"Ghandour","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0095","article-title":"BANER: Boundary-aware LLMs for few-shot named entity recognition","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0086","series-title":"Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Computational Linguistics","article-title":"BANER: Boundary-aware LLMs for few-shot named entity recognition","author":"Guo","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2024.109215","article-title":"Enhancing user prompt confidentiality in Large Language Models through advanced differential encryption","volume":"116","author":"Gupta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Computers and Electrical Engineering"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2024.128865","article-title":"GPTGAN: Utilizing the GPT language model and GAN to enhance adversarial text generation","volume":"617","author":"Hajipoor","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0043","article-title":"Make llms better zero-shot reasoners: Structure-orientated autonomous reasoning","author":"He","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0018","first-page":"10","article-title":"Training compute-optimal large language models","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0026","article-title":"Ethical Artificial Intelligence principles and guidelines for the governance and utilization of highly advanced large language models","author":"Hossain","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0006","series-title":"2023 5th IEEE International Conference on Trust, Privacy and Security in Intelligent Systems and Applications (TPS-ISA)","article-title":"Large language models and computer security","author":"Iyengar","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0074","article-title":"Large Language Models for Behavioral Economics: Internal Validity and Elicitation of Mental Models","author":"Jabarian","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0038","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2022 ACM conference on fairness, accountability, and transparency","article-title":"Data governance in the age of large-scale data-driven language technology","author":"Jernite","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0052","article-title":"XorSHAP: privacy-preserving explainable AI for decision tree models","author":"Jetchev","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cryptology ePrint Archive"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0092","first-page":"1859","article-title":"XorSHAP: Privacy-Preserving Explainable AI for Decision Tree Models","volume":"2023","author":"Jetchev","year":"2023","journal-title":"IACR Cryptol. ePrint Arch."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3718096","article-title":"Efficiency and performance optimization in large language models through ib fine-tuning","volume":"16","author":"Jo","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0072","series-title":"International Conference on Machine Learning","article-title":"Automatically auditing large language models via discrete optimization","author":"Jones","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0019","article-title":"Decoding Large-Language Models: A Systematic Overview of Socio-Technical Impacts, Constraints, and Emerging Questions","author":"Kaya","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khatoon, H., M.L. Khan, and A. Irshad, Large Language Model (LLM) Algorithms in Reshaping Decision-Making and Cognitive Biases in the AI-Leading World: An Experimental Study. 2026.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/xy82z"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2024.109698","article-title":"Privacy issues in large language models: a survey","volume":"120","author":"Kibriya","year":"2024","journal-title":"Computers and Electrical Engineering"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/s10115-024-02287-0","article-title":"A review on polyadic chatbots: trends, challenges, and future research directions","volume":"67","author":"Kuhail","year":"2025","journal-title":"Knowledge and Information Systems"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0022","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 Conference on Human Centred Artificial Intelligence-Education and Practice","article-title":"Ethical risks and future direction in building trust for large language models application under the EU AI act","author":"Lee","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0060","article-title":"Overprompt: Enhancing chatgpt through efficient in-context learning","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0094","unstructured":"Li, J., et al., OverPrompt: Enhancing ChatGPT through Efficient In-Context Learning. 2023."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0080","first-page":"0662","article-title":"Integrated optimization of large language models: Synergizing data utilization and compression techniques","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Preprints"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0100","article-title":"RAG-Instruct: Boosting LLMs with diverse retrieval-augmented instructions","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0062","series-title":"ICASSP 2024-2024 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP)","article-title":"Robust self-supervised learning with contrast samples for natural language understanding","author":"Liu","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0054","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2025 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing","article-title":"Rag-instruct: Boosting llms with diverse retrieval-augmented instructions","author":"Liu","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0098","unstructured":"Lobentanzer, S., et al., A Platform for the Biomedical Application of Large Language Models. 2023."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0057","article-title":"Realistic evaluation of toxicity in large language models","volume":"2024","author":"Luong","year":"2024"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-023-00289-2","article-title":"Auditing large language models: a three-layered approach","volume":"4","author":"M\u00f6kander","year":"2024","journal-title":"AI and Ethics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0025","article-title":"An empirical design justice approach to identifying ethical considerations in the intersection of large language models and social robotics","author":"Markelius","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0010","article-title":"Llms as mirrors of societal moral standards: reflection of cultural divergence and agreement across ethical topics","author":"Meijer","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0070","series-title":"Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Machine Learning and Systems","article-title":"Navigating challenges and technical debt in large language models deployment","author":"Menshawy","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0096","first-page":"2775","article-title":"How Trustworthy are Open-Source LLMs?","author":"Mo","year":"2023","journal-title":"An Assessment under Malicious Demonstrations Shows their Vulnerabilities"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0087","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (Volume 1: Long Papers)","article-title":"How trustworthy are open-source llms? an assessment under malicious demonstrations shows their vulnerabilities","author":"Mo","year":"2024"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10586-023-04203-7","article-title":"Foundation and large language models: fundamentals, challenges, opportunities, and social impacts","volume":"27","author":"Myers","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cluster Computing"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0033","article-title":"Voluminous yet vacuous? semantic capital in an age of large language models","author":"Nannini","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0007","series-title":"International conference on human-computer interaction","article-title":"Applications of large language models (llms) in business analytics\u2013exemplary use cases in data preparation tasks","author":"Nasseri","year":"2023"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3597307","article-title":"Biases in large language models: origins, inventory, and discussion","volume":"15","author":"Navigli","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Journal of Data and Information Quality"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.3390\/bdcc9060147","article-title":"The importance of AI data governance in large language models","volume":"9","author":"Pahune","year":"2025","journal-title":"Big Data and Cognitive Computing"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0082","series-title":"ICASSP 2025-2025 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP)","article-title":"Multi-Objective Large Language Model Unlearning","author":"Pan","year":"2025"},{"issue":"24","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4957","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12244957","article-title":"Tracing the influence of large language models across the most impactful scientific works","volume":"12","author":"Petro\u0219anu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0020","series-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 7th International Conference on Software Engineering and Information Management","article-title":"The impact of large language models on social media communication","author":"Qi","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2025.1431246","article-title":"Privacy, ethics, transparency, and accountability in AI systems for wearable devices","volume":"7","author":"Radanliev","year":"2025","journal-title":"Frontiers in Digital Health"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0012","first-page":"875","article-title":"Contribution and performance of ChatGPT and other Large Language Models (LLM) for scientific and research advancements: a double-edged sword","volume":"5","author":"Rane","year":"2023","journal-title":"International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0031","series-title":"2024 10th International Conference on Control, Decision and Information Technologies (CoDIT)","first-page":"2366","article-title":"Large Language Models for Healthcare: Applications, Models, Datasets, and Challenges","author":"Rezgui","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0099","series-title":"2024 IEEE Conference on Communications and Network Security (CNS)","article-title":"Disllm: distributed llms for privacy assurance in resource-constrained environments","author":"Sadeepa","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0097","series-title":"Proceedings of the SC'23 Workshops of the International Conference on High Performance Computing, Network, Storage, and Analysis","article-title":"Centralized provisioning of large language models for a research community","author":"Shah","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s43621-025-00815-8","article-title":"A comprehensive review of large language models: issues and solutions in learning environments","volume":"6","author":"Shahzad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discover Sustainability"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188664","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3482107","article-title":"Survey of different large language model architectures: Trends, benchmarks, and challenges","volume":"12","author":"Shao","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE access"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0039","article-title":"Large language model alignment: A survey","author":"Shen","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0064","article-title":"Large language model safety: A holistic survey","author":"Shi","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3087","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-024-00613-4","article-title":"Parity benchmark for measuring bias in LLMs","volume":"5","author":"Simpson","year":"2025","journal-title":"AI and Ethics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0083","series-title":"2025 IEEE 15th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference (CCWC)","article-title":"A survey of sustainability in large language models: Applications, economics, and challenges","author":"Singh","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0048","series-title":"International Conference on Cyber Warfare and Security","article-title":"Enhancing privacy and security in large-language models: a zero-knowledge proof approach","author":"Singh","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, S., Systems Engineering of Large Language Models for Enterprise Applications. 2025.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202501.0715.v1"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sriprasert, N., et al., Secure and Efficient Sharing of Model Insights between Commercial Large Language Models. 2024.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-4345345\/v1"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2023.102700","article-title":"The ethics of ChatGPT\u2013Exploring the ethical issues of an emerging technology","volume":"74","author":"Stahl","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Information Management"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0079","article-title":"Towards more robust retrieval-augmented generation: Evaluating rag under adversarial poisoning attacks","author":"Su","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2217\/fmai-2024-0001","article-title":"Unlocking the potential of large language models in healthcare: navigating the opportunities and challenges","author":"Tessler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Future Medicine AI"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0078","article-title":"Privacy-preserving personalized federated prompt learning for multimodal large language models","author":"Tran","year":"2025","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0051","series-title":"2024 XXVII International Conference on Soft Computing and Measurements (SCM)","article-title":"Local explanations for large language models: a brief review of methods","author":"Volkov","year":"2024"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.240197","article-title":"Do large language models have a legal duty to tell the truth?","volume":"11","author":"Wachter","year":"2024","journal-title":"Royal Society Open Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0058","article-title":"Ethical and social risks of harm from language models","author":"Weidinger","year":"2021","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0053","article-title":"Retrieval-augmented generation by evidence retroactivity in LLMs","author":"Xiao","year":"2025","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0075","series-title":"2024 International Conference on Meta Computing (ICMC)","article-title":"On protecting the data privacy of large language models (llms): A survey","author":"Yan","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0047","series-title":"2024 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (BigData)","article-title":"Problematic tokens: Tokenizer bias in large language models","author":"Yang","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0034","unstructured":"Yang, Y., et al., Beyond Multiple-Choice Accuracy: Real-World Challenges of Implementing Large Language Models in Healthcare. 2024."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0040","article-title":"Tackling bias in pre-trained language models: Current trends and under-represented societies","author":"Yogarajan","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0056","first-page":"1","article-title":"A survey of large language models","volume":"1","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0004","article-title":"Large language models for scientific synthesis, inference and explanation","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0035","article-title":"\"The teachers are confused as well\": A Multiple-Stakeholder Ethics Discussion on Large Language Models in Computing Education","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"ArXiv"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0028","series-title":"International Conference on Security and Privacy in Cyber-Physical Systems and Smart Vehicles","article-title":"Ethical considerations and policy implications for large language models: Guiding responsible development and deployment","author":"Zhou","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844_bib0023","unstructured":"Zyryanova, I.N., A.S. Chernavskiy, and S.O. Trubachev, Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. 2026."}],"container-title":["Information Processing &amp; Management"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0306457326002359?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0306457326002359?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T14:34:40Z","timestamp":1783694080000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0306457326002359"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]}},"alternative-id":["S0306457326002359"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844","relation":{},"ISSN":["0306-4573"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0306-4573","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Data ethics in training large language models: A systematic review of machine-learning strategies and AI governance frameworks","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Information Processing & Management","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ipm.2026.104844","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"104844"}}