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It is also recognized that some mTBIs have persistent, and sometimes progressive, long\u2010term debilitating effects. Increasing evidence suggests that a single traumatic brain injury can produce long\u2010term gray and white matter atrophy, precipitate or accelerate age\u2010related neurodegeneration, and increase the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and motor neuron disease. In addition, repetitive mTBIs can provoke the development of a tauopathy, chronic traumatic encephalopathy. We found early changes of chronic traumatic encephalopathy in four young veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflict who were exposed to explosive blast and in another young veteran who was repetitively concussed. Four of the five veterans with early\u2010stage chronic traumatic encephalopathy were also diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder. Advanced chronic traumatic encephalopathy has been found in veterans who experienced repetitive neurotrauma while in service and in others who were accomplished athletes. Clinically, chronic traumatic encephalopathy is associated with behavioral changes, executive dysfunction, memory loss, and cognitive impairments that begin insidiously and progress slowly over decades. Pathologically, chronic traumatic encephalopathy produces atrophy of the frontal and temporal lobes, thalamus, and hypothalamus; septal abnormalities; and abnormal deposits of hyperphosphorylated tau as neurofibrillary tangles and disordered neurites throughout the brain. The incidence and prevalence of chronic traumatic encephalopathy and the genetic risk factors critical to its development are currently unknown. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy has clinical and pathological features that overlap with postconcussion syndrome and posttraumatic stress disorder, suggesting that the three disorders might share some biological underpinnings.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2014.04.003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,9]],"date-time":"2014-06-09T22:02:31Z","timestamp":1402351351000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":282,"title":["Military\u2010related traumatic brain injury and neurodegeneration"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Ann C.","family":"McKee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"VA Boston Healthcare System Boston MA USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurology Boston University School of Medicine Boston MA USA"},{"name":"Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Boston University School of Medicine Boston MA USA"},{"name":"Alzheimer Disease Center Boston University School of Medicine Boston MA USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meghan E.","family":"Robinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VA Boston Healthcare System Boston MA USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,6]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2009.10.006","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury hospitalizations of U.S. army soldiers deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq","volume":"38","author":"Wojcik BE","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa072972"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_2_4_4_2","first-page":"S104","article-title":"Military traumatic brain and spinal column injury: a 5\u2010year study of the impact blast and other military grade weaponry on the central nervous system","volume":"66","author":"Bell RS","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Trauma"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0b013e31819581d8"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_6_2","first-page":"331","article-title":"The effects of high explosives upon the central nervous system, lecture I","volume":"48","author":"Mott FW","year":"1916","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_7_2","first-page":"441","article-title":"The effects of high explosives upon the central nervous system, lecture II","volume":"48","author":"Mott FW","year":"1916","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneurol.2011.3747"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1928.02700150029009"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)56508-8","article-title":"Head injuries attributable to boxing","volume":"230","author":"Winterstein CE","year":"1937","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.115.518.45"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_12_2","volume-title":"Punch\u2010drunk syndromes: The chronic traumatic encephalopathy of boxers","author":"Critchley M","year":"1949"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.5015.357"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291700049588"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/NEN.0b013e3181a9d503"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1227\/01.NEU.0000163407.92769.ED"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1227\/01.NEU.0000245601.69451.27"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aws307"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-013-1230-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3171\/2011.9.FOCUS11178"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3003716"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1249\/01.mss.0000202025.48774.31"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2013-092313"},{"key":"e_1_2_4_24_2","unstructured":"Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center. 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