{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T03:15:31Z","timestamp":1785294931000,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,1]],"date-time":"2016-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1451606400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,1]],"date-time":"2016-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1451606400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,1]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,1]],"date-time":"2015-12-01T00:30:15Z","timestamp":1448929815000},"page":"97-107","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"special_numbering":"C","title":["The epidemiology of homicidal strangulation in the City of Johannesburg, South Africa"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"37","author":[{"given":"Shahnaaz","family":"Suffla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed","family":"Seedat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib1","series-title":"2011 global study on homicide: trends, contexts, data","author":"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)","year":"2011"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60948-X","article-title":"Violence and injuries in South Africa: prioritising an agenda for prevention","volume":"374","author":"Seedat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib3","series-title":"Crime, violence and injury prevention in South Africa: developments and challenges, Tygerberg: MRC-UNISA crime, violence & injury lead programme","first-page":"9","article-title":"The burden of injury in South Africa: fatal injury trends and international comparisons","author":"Matzopoulos","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.06.037184","article-title":"The high burden of injuries in South Africa","volume":"85","author":"Norman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1001412","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001412","article-title":"Intimate partner femicide in South Africa in 1999 and 2009","volume":"10","author":"Abrahams","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib6","series-title":"World health report on violence and health","first-page":"1","article-title":"Violence \u2013 a global public health problem","author":"Dahlberg","year":"2002"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1881","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61814-5","article-title":"Health in South Africa: Changes and challenges since 2009","volume":"380","author":"Mayosi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib8","first-page":"16","article-title":"Young black men's risk to firearm homicide in night time Johannesburg, South Africa: a retrospective analysis based on the National Injury Mortality Surveillance System","volume":"10","author":"Kramer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Afr Saf Promot J Inj Violence Prev"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib9","series-title":"National and international perspectives on crime and policing","first-page":"44","article-title":"Is it race, age or sex? Masculinity in male homicide victimisation in urban South Africa","author":"Ratele","year":"2011"},{"issue":"93","key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib10","first-page":"682","article-title":"Initial burden of disease estimates for South Africa","volume":"2003","author":"Bradshaw","year":"2000","journal-title":"South Afr Med J"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib11","article-title":"Second National Burden of Disease Study South Africa: National and subnational mortality trends, 1997\u20132009","volume":"381","author":"Pillay-van Wyk","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib12","series-title":"Knight's forensic pathology","author":"Saukko","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/S1344-6223(99)80002-9","article-title":"Killing tools in mechanical asphyxia","volume":"1","author":"Abder-Rahman","year":"1999","journal-title":"Leg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/S1344-6223(01)00003-7","article-title":"Regional differences in homicide patterns in five areas of Japan","volume":"3","author":"Hata","year":"2001","journal-title":"Leg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-0738(03)00279-2","article-title":"Homicidal and suicidal ligature strangulation \u2013 a comparison of the post-mortem findings","volume":"137","author":"Maxeiner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcfm.2006.01.007","article-title":"Pediatric and adolescent strangulation deaths","volume":"14","author":"Verma","year":"2007","journal-title":"J\u00a0Forensic Leg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.legalmed.2005.06.004","article-title":"Strangulation deaths during 1993\u20132002 in East Delhi (India)","volume":"8","author":"Verma","year":"2006","journal-title":"Leg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2008.12.013","article-title":"Ligature strangulation deaths in the province of Konya (Turkey)","volume":"16","author":"Demirci","year":"2009","journal-title":"J\u00a0Forensic Leg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-4679(01)00401-2","article-title":"A\u00a0review of 300 attempted strangulation cases. Part II: Injuries in fatal cases","volume":"21","author":"Hawley","year":"2001","journal-title":"J\u00a0Emerg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-0738(95)01695-F","article-title":"Homicide in the bathtub","volume":"72","author":"Schmidt","year":"1995","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.legalmed.2004.05.001","article-title":"Victimiologic study of female homicide","volume":"6","author":"Mohanty","year":"2004","journal-title":"Leg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemermed.2007.02.065","article-title":"Non-fatal strangulation is an important risk factor for homicide of women","volume":"35","author":"Glass","year":"2008","journal-title":"J\u00a0Emerg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1080\/00981389.2012.692352","article-title":"I\u00a0didn't know I could turn colours: health problems and health care experiences of women strangled by an intimate partner","volume":"51","author":"Joshi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Soc Work Health Care"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-4679(01)00400-0","article-title":"A\u00a0review of 300 attempted strangulation cases. Part II: clinical evaluation of the surviving victim","volume":"21","author":"McClane","year":"2001","journal-title":"J\u00a0Emerg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2004.09.106","article-title":"Forensic assessment of survived strangulation","volume":"153","author":"Plattner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1097\/PAF.0b013e3181d3dc02","article-title":"Living victims of strangulation: a 10-year review of cases in a metropolitan community","volume":"31","author":"Shields","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Forensic Med Pathol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-4679(01)00402-4","article-title":"Frequency and relationship of reported symptomology in victims of intimate partner violence: the effects of multiple strangulation attacks","volume":"21","author":"Smith","year":"2001","journal-title":"J\u00a0Emerg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-4679(01)00399-7","article-title":"A\u00a0review of 300 attempted strangulation cases. Part I: criminal legal issues","volume":"21","author":"Strack","year":"2001","journal-title":"J\u00a0Emerg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1177\/0361684313488354","article-title":"\u201cDo you know what it feels like to drown?\u201d: strangulation as coercive control in intimate relationships","volume":"38","author":"Thomas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol Women Q"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-4679(01)00398-5","article-title":"Survey results of women who have been strangled while in an abusive relationship","volume":"21","author":"Wilbur","year":"2001","journal-title":"J\u00a0Emerg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib31","series-title":"Criminal profiling: international theory, research, and practice","first-page":"73","article-title":"Murder by manual and ligature strangulation","author":"H\u00e4kk\u00e4nen","year":"2007"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2005.02.032","article-title":"Homicide by ligature strangulation in Finland: offence and offender characteristics","volume":"152","author":"H\u00e4kk\u00e4nen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcfm.2004.10.011","article-title":"Patterns of non-firearm suicide","volume":"12","author":"Henderson","year":"2005","journal-title":"J\u00a0Clin Forensic Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1097\/00000433-200106000-00004","article-title":"Asphyxial homicide in two Scandinavian capitals","volume":"22","author":"Rodge","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am J Forensic Med Pathol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcfm.2006.08.001","article-title":"Suicidal and homicidal deaths: a comparative and circumstantial approach","volume":"14","author":"Ambade","year":"2007","journal-title":"J\u00a0Forensic Leg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-8-363","article-title":"Female homicidal strangulation in urban South Africa","author":"Suffla","year":"2008","journal-title":"BMC Public"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1080\/14789940903513195","article-title":"Homicide convictions in different age groups: a national clinical survey","volume":"21","author":"Hunt","year":"2010","journal-title":"J\u00a0Forensic Psychiatry Psychol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib38","series-title":"Treatment of strangulation cases: a model protocol for Maryland medical practitioners","author":"Maryland Network Against Domestic Violence","year":"2002"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-0738(98)00004-8","article-title":"Medicolegal autopsies of violent deaths in northern Norway 1972\u20131992","volume":"92","author":"Nordrum","year":"1998","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1136\/ip.2006.012617","article-title":"Deaths from violence in North Carolina, 2004: how deaths differ in females and males","volume":"12","author":"Sanford","year":"2006","journal-title":"Inj Prev"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib41","series-title":"Understanding intimate femicide in South Africa","author":"Mathews","year":"2010"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib42","series-title":"Child homicide patterns in South Africa: Is there a link to child abuse? Research brief","author":"Mathews","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838003004003005","article-title":"Perpetrators of spousal homicide: a review","volume":"4","author":"Aldridge","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trauma Violence Abuse"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib44","first-page":"168","article-title":"Injury patterns of female homicide victims in South Africa","volume":"67","author":"Mathews","year":"2009","journal-title":"J\u00a0Trauma Inj Infect Crit Care"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib45","series-title":"Census 2011 statistical release \u2013 P0301.4","author":"Statistics South Africa","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib46","series-title":"Crime, violence and injury prevention in South Africa: data to action, Tygerberg: MRC-UNISA crime, violence & injury lead programme","first-page":"122","article-title":"Murder and robbery in South Africa: a tale of two trends","author":"Altbeker","year":"2008"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib47","series-title":"South Africa survey 2010\/2011","author":"South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR)","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib48","series-title":"A\u00a0profile of fatal injuries in Gauteng, 2011","author":"MRC-UNISA Safety & Peace Promotion Research Unit","year":"2013"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib49","unstructured":"Statistics South Africa. Census 2011. Retrieved from: http:\/\/interactive.statssa.gov.za\/superweb\/login.do; 2012."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib50","unstructured":"Statistics South Africa. Key statistics. Retrieved from: http:\/\/beta2.statssa.gov.za\/?page_id=1021&id=city-of-johannesburg-municipality; 2012."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib51","series-title":"Joburg 2040: growth and development strategy","author":"City of Johannesburg","year":"2011"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib52","unstructured":"Inquests Act. Retrieved from: http:\/\/www.justice.gov.za\/legislation\/acts\/1959-58.pdf; 1959."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib53","first-page":"16","article-title":"A\u00a0profile of fatal injuries in South Africa","volume":"1","author":"Matzopoulos","year":"2002","journal-title":"Afr Saf Promot J Inj Violence Prev"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib54","series-title":"Census 2001: census in brief. Report no. 03-02-03","author":"Statistics South Africa","year":"2003"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib55","series-title":"United States state-level population estimates: colonization to 1999","author":"Coulson","year":"2003"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib56","series-title":"Crime in the United States","author":"Federal Bureau of Investigation","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.24.4.546","article-title":"Mortality of women from intimate partner violence in South Africa: a national epidemiological study","volume":"24","author":"Abrahams","year":"2009","journal-title":"Violence Vict"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib58","series-title":"Every eight hours: intimate femicide in South Africa 10 years later!","author":"Abrahams","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260502017005002","article-title":"Sexual homicide of elderly females: linking offender characteristics to victim and crime scene attributes","volume":"17","author":"Safarik","year":"2002","journal-title":"J\u00a0Interpers Violence"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1177\/1088767998002002003","article-title":"Strangers in the night: an application of the lifestyle routine activities approach to elderly homicide victimization","volume":"2","author":"Nelson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Homicide Stud"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib61","series-title":"Census 2011: profile of older persons in South Africa","author":"Statistics South Africa","year":"2014"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib62","first-page":"662","article-title":"Neighborhood racial\/ethnic concentration, social disadvantage, and homicide risk: an ecological analysis of 10 U.S. cities","volume":"85","author":"Jones-Webb","year":"2008","journal-title":"J\u00a0Urban Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1177\/1088767907304072","article-title":"Structural covariates of homicide rates: a European city cross-national comparative analysis","volume":"11","author":"McCall","year":"2007","journal-title":"Homicide Stud"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib64","series-title":"Understanding and preventing violence: social influences","first-page":"1","article-title":"Violence victimization and offending","author":"Sampson","year":"1994"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib65","series-title":"Interpersonal violence and alcohol. WHO policy briefing","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2006"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib66","series-title":"Global status report on alcohol and health 2014","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2014"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/add.12825","article-title":"Alcohol consumption in adolescent homicide victims in the city of Johannesburg, South Africa","author":"Swart","year":"2015","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.15288\/jsad.2009.70.321","article-title":"Alcohol use and its role in female homicides in the Western Cape, South Africa","volume":"70","author":"Mathews","year":"2009","journal-title":"J\u00a0Stud Alcohol Drugs"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib69","series-title":"Nightlife and crime: social order and governance in international perspective","first-page":"277","article-title":"Night-time fatal violence in South Africa","author":"Ratele","year":"2009"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib70","first-page":"235","article-title":"Stealing the show? Crime and its impact in post-Apartheid South Africa","volume":"130","author":"Shaw","year":"2001","journal-title":"Daedalus"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1097\/00000433-199603000-00002","article-title":"Postmortem production of ethanol and factors that influence interpretation: a critical review","volume":"17","author":"O'Neal","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am J Med Pathol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005_bib72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1258\/0004563001901498","article-title":"Pitfalls in forensic toxicology","volume":"37","author":"Richardson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann Clin Biochem"}],"container-title":["Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1752928X15002115?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1752928X15002115?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T00:09:22Z","timestamp":1761696562000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1752928X15002115"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,1]]},"references-count":72,"alternative-id":["S1752928X15002115"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005","relation":{},"ISSN":["1752-928X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1752-928X","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"The epidemiology of homicidal strangulation in the City of Johannesburg, South Africa","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jflm.2015.11.005","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"Copyright \u00a9 2015 Elsevier Ltd and Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine. All rights reserved.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}