{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T23:02:27Z","timestamp":1781737347125,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,1]],"date-time":"2021-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633046400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,1]],"date-time":"2021-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633046400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,26]],"date-time":"2021-08-26T21:50:34Z","timestamp":1630014634000},"page":"102249","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Firearm injuries associated with law enforcement activity"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"83","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1217-0528","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Randall T.","family":"Loder","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Allison","family":"Young","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bradley","family":"Atoa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yasu.2019.04.019","article-title":"Firearm violence in America. Is there a solution?","volume":"53","author":"Choron","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv Surg"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamcollsurg.2019.05.018","article-title":"Proceedings from the medical summit on firearm injury prevention: a public health approach to reduce death and disability in the US","volume":"229","author":"Bulger","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Am Coll Surg"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamcollsurg.2015.08.430","article-title":"Firearm injury in the United States: an overview of an evolving public health problem","volume":"221","author":"Tasigiorgos","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Am Coll Surg"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-0323","article-title":"Increases in actual health care costs and claims after firearm injury","volume":"173","author":"Ranney","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1097\/PHM.0b013e31817fb496","article-title":"Years of life lost because of gunshot injury to the brain and spinal cord","volume":"87","author":"Richmond","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am J Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib6","series-title":"Better Path Forward","first-page":"1","article-title":"Police reform","author":"Ray","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2011.01.017","article-title":"Factors associated with law enforcement\u2013related use-of-force injury","volume":"30","author":"Castillo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am J Emerg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2006.12.013","article-title":"Frequency of traumatic lesions alleged by victims of assault during police custody","volume":"14","author":"Lorin de la Grandmaison","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Forensic Leg Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2012.08.031","article-title":"Reported assaults and observed injuries in detainees held in police custody","volume":"223","author":"Gahide","year":"2012","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0000000000001783","article-title":"Injuries associated with police use of force","volume":"84","author":"Bozeman","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Trauma Acute Care Surg"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2019.01.003","article-title":"Mental and substance use disorders among legal intervention injury cases in California, 2005-2014","volume":"121","author":"Farkas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prev Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2016.303575","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic disparities in the use of lethal force by US police, 2010-2014","volume":"107","author":"Buehler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am J Publ Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-020-00430-0","article-title":"A typology of civilians shot and killed by US police: a latent class analysis of firearm legal intervention homicide in the 2014-2015 National Violent Death Reporting System","volume":"97","author":"Wertz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Urban Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63073","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-018-0313-z","article-title":"Variation in rates of fatal police shooting across US states: the role of firearm availability","volume":"96","author":"Hemenway","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Urban Health"},{"issue":"1-10","key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib15","article-title":"Association of legal intervention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California","volume":"1","author":"Mooney","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"issue":"1-9","key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s40621-016-0067-6","article-title":"Risk factors associated with legal interventions","volume":"3","author":"Holloway-Beth","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inj Epidemiol"},{"issue":"1-21","key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14020142","article-title":"A profile of injuries sustained by law enforcment officers: a critical review","volume":"14","author":"Lyons","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Publ Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib18","unstructured":"US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, United States Consumer Product Safety Commission. Firearm Injury Surveillance Study, 1993-2015. Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research Ann Arbor, MI."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib19","series-title":"Worldwide Variation in Human Growth","author":"Eveleth","year":"1990"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib20","unstructured":"United Census Bureu. Our Changing Nation. Black Population in the U.S.: 2000-2060. Accessed July 25, 2021. www.census.gov\/content\/dam\/census\/newsroom\/facts-for-features\/2015\/cb15-ff.01_graphic.pdf."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib21","unstructured":"Snyder HN, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, US Department of Justice. Arrest in the United States, 1990-2010. https:\/\/www.bjs.gov\/content\/pub\/pdf\/aus9010.pdf. Accessed October 13, 2018."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib22","first-page":"1","article-title":"Defund or #Re-Fund? Re-examining Bayley's blueprint for police reform","author":"Koziarski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Comp Appl Crim Justice"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-020-01846-z","article-title":"Brutality and racial bias: what the data say","volume":"583","author":"Peeples","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2019.101623","article-title":"A national study of sustained use of force complaints in law enforcement agencies","volume":"64","author":"Pryor","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2019.101623","article-title":"A national study of sustained use of force complaints in law enforcement agencies","volume":"64","author":"Pryor","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib26","first-page":"580","article-title":"The relationship between racial residential segregation and Black-White disparities in fatal police shootings at the city level, 2013-2017","volume":"111","author":"Siegel","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Natl Med Assoc"},{"issue":"1-17","key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib27","article-title":"US law enforcement policy predictors of race specific police fatalities during 2015\u201316","volume":"16","author":"Thomas","year":"2021","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/lhb0000164","article-title":"The alleged \"Ferguson effect\" and police willingness to engage in community partnership","volume":"40","author":"Wolfe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Law Hum Behav"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9133.12269","article-title":"A bird's eye view of civilians killed by police in 2015. Further evidence of implicit bias","volume":"16","author":"Nix","year":"2017","journal-title":"Criminol Publ Pol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0229686","article-title":"Mapping fatal police violence across U.S. metropolitan areas: overall rates and racial\/ethnic inequities, 2013-2017","volume":"15","author":"Schwartz","year":"2020","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib31","series-title":"Source and Use of Firearms Involved in Crimes: Survey of Prison Inmates, 2016","author":"Alper","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamcollsurg.2019.12.040","article-title":"Separating truth from alternative facts: 37 years of guns, murder, and violence across the US","volume":"230","author":"Manley","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Am Coll Surg"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib33","series-title":"Firearms Used in the Commission of Crimes","author":"Office of the Attorney General","year":"2019"},{"issue":"1-15","key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s12995-018-0221-x","article-title":"A systematic review on occupational hazards, injuries and diseases among police officers worldwide: policy implications for the South African Police Service","volume":"14","author":"Mona","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Occup Med Toxicol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib35","unstructured":"Holzer M. Protect the protectors: a qualitative study on OSH in conjunction with unwanted side effects for the work performance of frontline police officers. Int J Occup Saf Ergon e-pub ahead of print."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib36","unstructured":"Us Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Criminal Justice Services Division. Crime in the U.S. 2018. Table 74. Full time law enforcement employees. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191007230146\/https:\/\/ucr.fbi.gov\/crime-in-the-u.s\/2018\/crime-in-the-u.s.-2018\/tables\/table-74. Accessed August 24, 2021."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib37","series-title":"Federal Bureau of Investigation, Criminal Justice Services Division. Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted","author":"Us Department of Justice","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib38","series-title":"Federal Bureau of Investigation, Criminal Justice Services Division","author":"Us Department of Justice","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib39","first-page":"68","article-title":"Cop-killing: a descriptive analysis of the problem","volume":"7","author":"Little","year":"1984","journal-title":"Police Stud Int Rev Police Dev"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib40","series-title":"Pandemic, Social Unrest, and Crime in U.S. Cities March 2021 Update","author":"Rosenfeld","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib41","series-title":"US Crime: Is America Seeing a Surge in Violence? BBC Reality Check. July 7","author":"Horton","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib42","series-title":"s Historic Surge in Murders, Explained","author":"Lopez","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1749","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1995.03520460031030","article-title":"National estimates of nonfatal firearm-related injuries. Beyond the tip of the iceberg","volume":"273","author":"Annest","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Am Med Assoc"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-3797(18)31112-7","article-title":"Consumer product-related injuries in Athens, Ohio, 1980-1985: assessment of emergency room-based surveillance","volume":"5","author":"Hopkins","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9133.12535","article-title":"What does the public want police to do during pandemics? A national experiment","author":"Nix","year":"2021","journal-title":"Criminol Publ Pol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib46","first-page":"1","article-title":"Police-involved deaths and the impact on homicide rates in the post-Ferguson era: a study of 44 U.S. cities","author":"Lane","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Interpers Violence"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib47","series-title":"A War on Cops? the Effects of Ferguson on the Number of U.S. Police Officers Murdered in the Line of Duty. Justice Quarterly","author":"Maguire","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1177\/0011128716686343","article-title":"Is the number of citizens fatally shot by police increasing in the post-Ferguson era?","volume":"64","author":"Campbell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crime Delinquen"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib49","series-title":"Five Years of the Ferguson Effect: An Officer Perspective [Doctoral Dissertation]","author":"Wilcox","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib50","first-page":"1539","article-title":"The death of Freddie Gray and its impact on homicides in Baltimore and Maryland","volume":"65","author":"Sweet","year":"2020","journal-title":"J For Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1037\/lhb0000339","article-title":"The force of fear: police stereotype threat, self-legitimacy, and support for excessive force","volume":"43","author":"Trinkner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Law Hum Behav"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib52","series-title":"Soros Hands $1 Million to Group Attempting to Defund Police as Violent Crime Skyrockets Nationwide","author":"Miller","year":"2021"},{"issue":"1-27","key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib53","article-title":"Impacts of California proposition 47 on crime in santa Monica, California","volume":"16","author":"Crodelle","year":"2021","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1136\/injuryprev-2016-042088","article-title":"Not an \u2018iron pipeline\u2019, but many capillaries: regulating passive transactions in Los Angeles' secondary, illegal gun market","volume":"23","author":"Chesnut","year":"2017","journal-title":"Inj Prev"}],"container-title":["Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1752928X21001347?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1752928X21001347?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T00:16:06Z","timestamp":1761696966000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1752928X21001347"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]},"references-count":54,"alternative-id":["S1752928X21001347"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249","relation":{},"ISSN":["1752-928X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1752-928X","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Firearm injuries associated with law enforcement activity","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102249","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2021 Elsevier Ltd and Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine. All rights reserved.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"102249"}}