{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T03:27:32Z","timestamp":1793417252671,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,1]],"date-time":"2018-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1522540800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,1]],"date-time":"2018-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1522540800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of the National Medical Association"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,4]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,19]],"date-time":"2018-01-19T00:56:38Z","timestamp":1516323398000},"page":"106-116","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":140,"title":["The Relationship Between Structural Racism and Black-White Disparities in Fatal Police Shootings at the State Level"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"110","author":[{"given":"Aldina","family":"Mesic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lydia","family":"Franklin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alev","family":"Cansever","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fiona","family":"Potter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anika","family":"Sharma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anita","family":"Knopov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Siegel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2015.10.025","article-title":"Violent death rates: the US compared with other high-income OECD countries, 2010","volume":"129","author":"Grinshteyn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib2","series-title":"Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting Systems: Fatal Injury Reports","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2015.06.002","article-title":"Firearm injuries in the United States","volume":"79","author":"Fowler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prev Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2016.303575","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic disparities in the use of lethal force by US police, 2010-2014","volume":"107","author":"Buehler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am J Publ Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2017.303691","article-title":"Police brutality and Black health: setting the agenda for public health scholars","volume":"107","author":"Alang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am J Publ Health"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0141854","article-title":"A\u00a0multi-level Bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011-2014","volume":"10","author":"Ross","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLos One"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01000.x","article-title":"Structural inequality and homicide: an assessment of the Black-White gap in killings","volume":"41","author":"Velez","year":"2003","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1999.tb00493.x","article-title":"Structural conditions and racial homicide patterns: a look at the multiple disadvantages in urban areas","volume":"37","author":"Parker","year":"1999","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1997.tb01229.x","article-title":"Variation in African-American homicide rates: an assessment of potential explanations","volume":"35","author":"Phillips","year":"1997","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1982.tb00450.x","article-title":"Poverty, inequality, and the urban homicide rate: some unexpected findings","volume":"20","author":"Messner","year":"1982","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00809.x","article-title":"Dimensions of racial inequality and rates of violent crime","volume":"25","author":"Golden","year":"1987","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01111.x","article-title":"Racial inequality and racially disaggregated homicide rates: an assessment of alternative theoretical explanations","volume":"30","author":"Messner","year":"1992","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1986.tb01497.x","article-title":"Income inequality and levels of homicide: an analysis of urban neighborhoods","volume":"24","author":"Messner","year":"1986","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1985.tb00368.x","article-title":"Structural sources of variation in race-age-specific rates of offending across major U.S. cities","volume":"23","author":"Sampson","year":"1985","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-6237.2012.00868.x","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in structural disadvantage and crime: white, Black, and Hispanic comparisons","volume":"93","author":"Ulmer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Soc Sci Q"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1525\/sp.2002.49.3.349","article-title":"White, Black, and Latino homicide rates: why the difference?","volume":"49","author":"Phillips","year":"2002","journal-title":"Soc Probl"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021451703612","article-title":"Racial segregation, the concentration of disadvantage, and Black and White homicide victimization","volume":"14","author":"Peterson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sociol Forum"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.2307\/2580353","article-title":"Segregation and crime: the effect of Black social isolation on the rates of Black urban violence","volume":"74","author":"Shihadeh","year":"1996","journal-title":"Soc Forces"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.2307\/2580128","article-title":"Racial segregation and Black urban homicide","volume":"71","author":"Peterson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Soc Forces"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.2307\/2095046","article-title":"The cost of inequality: metropolitan structure and violent crime","volume":"47","author":"Blau","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am Sociol Rev"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1533-8525.2000.tb00091.x","article-title":"Concentrated poverty, race, and homicide","volume":"41","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"Socio Q"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2003.011874","article-title":"Neighbourhoods and homicide mortality: an analysis of race\/ethnic differences","volume":"58","author":"Krueger","year":"2004","journal-title":"J\u00a0Epidemiol Community Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1086\/231291","article-title":"The determinants of deadly force: a structural analysis of police violence","volume":"103","author":"Jacobs","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am J Sociol"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1108\/13639510410566262","article-title":"Structural and organizational predictors of homicide by police","volume":"27","author":"Smith","year":"2004","journal-title":"Policing: Int J Police Strat Mgmt"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib25","first-page":"34","article-title":"The management of police killings","volume":"8","author":"Harring","year":"1977","journal-title":"Crime Soc Justice"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib26","article-title":"The enduring impact of historical and structural racism on urban violence in Philadelphia","author":"Jacoby","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2013.07.021","article-title":"Structural racism and myocardial infarction in the United States","volume":"103","author":"Lukachko","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxp001","article-title":"Is segregation bad for your health?","volume":"31","author":"Kramer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epidemiol Rev"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x","article-title":"US Socioeconomic status, and health: the added effects of racism and discrimination","volume":"896","author":"Williams","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ann NY Acad Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1016\/S0033-3549(04)50068-7","article-title":"Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health","volume":"116","author":"Williams","year":"2001","journal-title":"Publ Health Rep"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1097\/00006842-197307000-00003","article-title":"Socio-ecological stress, suppressed hostility, skin color, and black-white male blood pressure: Detroit","volume":"35","author":"Harburg","year":"1973","journal-title":"Psychosom Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwr116","article-title":"Metropolitan-level racial residential segregation and Black-White disparities in hypertension","volume":"174","author":"Kershaw","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2008.07.002","article-title":"Social context as an explanation for race disparities in hypertension: findings from the exploring health disparities in integrated communities (EHDIC) study","volume":"67","author":"Thorpe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a009191","article-title":"Neighborhood environments and coronary heart disease: a multilevel analysis","volume":"146","author":"Diez-Roux","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.82.2.267","article-title":"Smoking related behavior, beliefs, and social environment of young black women in subsidized public housing in Chicago","volume":"82","author":"Manfredi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am J Publ Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib36","series-title":"The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness","author":"Alexander","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib37","series-title":"Travel Advisory for the State of Missouri","author":"NAACP","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib38","series-title":"2017's States with the Most Racial Progress","author":"Wallet Hub","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib39","first-page":"244","volume":"94","author":"Krieger","year":"2017","journal-title":"J\u00a0Urban Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.2307\/2579183","article-title":"The dimensions of residential segregation","volume":"67","author":"Massey","year":"1988","journal-title":"Soc Forces"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib41","unstructured":"Kivisto, A.J., Ray. B., Phalen, P.L. Firearm legislation and fatal police shootings in the United States. Am J Public Health. Published online ahead of print on May 18, 2017: e1\u201338."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1136\/injuryprev-2016-042023","article-title":"Perils of police action: a cautionary tale from US data sets","volume":"23","author":"Miller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Inj Prev"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib43","unstructured":"Mapping Police Violence Project. Mapping police violence. https:\/\/mappingpoliceviolence.org. Accessed 27 July,\u00a02017."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2016.303074","article-title":"Homicides by police: comparing counts from the National Violent Death Reporting System, vital statistics, and supplementary homicide reports","volume":"106","author":"Barber","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Publ Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1136\/injuryprev-2016-042023","article-title":"Perils of police action: a cautionary tale from US data sets","volume":"23","author":"Miller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Inj Prev"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2016.08.027","article-title":"Deaths due to use of lethal force by law enforcement","volume":"51","author":"DeGue","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1177\/1088767911430861","article-title":"On the problems and promise of research on lethal police violence","volume":"16","author":"Klinger","year":"2011","journal-title":"Homicide Stud"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.93.7.1117","article-title":"Underreporting of justifiable homicides committed by police officers in the United States, 1976-1998","volume":"93","author":"Loftin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Publ Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9133.2008.00529.x","article-title":"On the importance of sound measures of forceful police actions","volume":"7","author":"Klinger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Criminol Publ Pol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.2307\/1142641","article-title":"Measuring homicide by police officers","volume":"70","author":"Sherman","year":"1979","journal-title":"J\u00a0Crim Law Criminol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib51","series-title":"American apartheid: segregation and the making of the underclass","author":"Massey","year":"1993"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib52","series-title":"Stanford center on\u00a0Poverty and Inequality. Pathways: The Poverty and Inequality Report 2015","article-title":"State of\u00a0the states: spatial segregation","author":"Lichter","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib53","unstructured":"Racial Residential Segregation Measurement Project, Inter\u00a0University Consortium for Political and Social Research, Population Studies Center, University of Michigan. Calculation formula for segregation measures. http:\/\/enceladus.isr.umich.edu\/race\/calculate.html. Accessed 27 July\u00a02017."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.92.6.1006","article-title":"Across the thin blue line: police officers and racial bias in the decision to shoot","volume":"92","author":"Correll","year":"2007","journal-title":"J\u00a0Pers Soc Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0956-7976.2005.00800.x","article-title":"The consequences of race for police officers' responses to criminal suspects","volume":"6","author":"Plant","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eberhardt, J.L, Goff P.A, Purdie V.J, Davies P.J, Seeing black: race, crime, and visual processing. J Pers Soc Psychol, 87, 876\u2013893.","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.87.6.876"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib57","first-page":"876","article-title":"Deadly force: what we know","volume":"87","author":"Geller","year":"1982","journal-title":"J\u00a0Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002_bib58","first-page":"151","article-title":"The effects of suspect race and situation hazard on police officer shooting behavior","volume":"10","author":"Inn","year":"1977","journal-title":"J\u00a0Police Sci Adm"}],"container-title":["Journal of the National Medical Association"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0027968417303206?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0027968417303206?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,21]],"date-time":"2025-09-21T06:16:16Z","timestamp":1758435376000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0027968417303206"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,4]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,4]]}},"alternative-id":["S0027968417303206"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-9684"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-9684","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"The Relationship Between Structural Racism and Black-White Disparities in Fatal Police Shootings at the State Level","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Journal of the National Medical Association","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jnma.2017.12.002","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2017 by the National Medical Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}