{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T17:04:10Z","timestamp":1789491850465,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010665","name":"H2020 Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie Actions","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["860410"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["860410"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010665","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010661","name":"Horizon 2020 Framework Programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010661","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Safety Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T10:36:32Z","timestamp":1786530992000},"page":"419-432","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Evaluation of adaptive sampling methods in scenario generation for virtual safety impact assessment of pre-crash safety systems"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"98","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1641-9634","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaomi","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9447-663X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henrik","family":"Imberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8484-4187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carol","family":"Flannagan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonas","family":"B\u00e4rgman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0005","series-title":"L3Pilot deliverable D7.4 impact evaluation results","author":"Afsaneh","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2024.04.007","article-title":"Methodological challenges of scenario generation validation: A rear-end crash-causation model for virtual safety assessment","volume":"104","author":"B\u00e4rgman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology And Behaviour"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0015","article-title":"Leveraging the gidas database for the criticality analysis of automated driving systems","volume":"2023","author":"Babisch","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal Of Advanced Transportation"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0020","series-title":"Uncertainty in artificial intelligence - proceedings of the 33rd conference, UAI 2017","article-title":"Coupling adaptive batch sizes with learning rates","author":"Balles","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Machine Learning"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2017.2699226","article-title":"Adaptive importance sampling: The past, the present, and the future","volume":"34","author":"Bugallo","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Processing Magazine"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2003.00099.x","article-title":"Estimating the generalized concordance correlation coefficient through variance components","volume":"59","author":"Carrasco","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1541880.1541882","article-title":"Anomaly detection: A survey","volume":"41","author":"Chandola","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACM computing surveys (CSUR)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0045","series-title":"Effectiveness of forward collision warning systems with and without autonomous emergency braking in reducing police-reported crash rates","author":"Cicchino","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0050","first-page":"11933","article-title":"Batch active learning at scale","volume":"34","author":"Citovsky","year":"2021","journal-title":"Advances In Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2012.09.025","article-title":"Inverse propensity weighting to adjust for bias in fatal crash samples","volume":"50","author":"Clark","year":"2013","journal-title":"Accident Analysis & Prevention"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/153.3.219","article-title":"Mortality reduction with air bag and seat belt use in head-on passenger car collisions","volume":"153","author":"Crandall","year":"2001","journal-title":"American Journal Of Epidemiology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2024.3377534","article-title":"Ontology-based scenario generation for automated driving systems verification and validation using rules of the road","author":"da Costa","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions On Intelligent Vehicles"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2011.05.001","article-title":"Outline for a causal model of traffic conflicts and crashes","volume":"43","author":"Davis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Accident Analysis & Prevention"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0075","series-title":"2017 IEEE intelligent vehicles symposium (IV)","first-page":"589","article-title":"Assessment of automated driving systems using real-life scenarios","author":"de Gelder","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0080","series-title":"Proceedings of the 23rd international technical conference on the enhanced safety of vehicles","first-page":"27","article-title":"Traffic accidents in Shanghai\u2014General statistics and in-depth analysis","author":"Deng","year":"2013"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0085","author":"Devarakonda"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6971","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2023.3259322","article-title":"A survey on safety-critical driving scenario generation\u2014a methodological perspective","volume":"24","author":"Ding","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions On Intelligent Transportation Systems"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1365\/s38311-011-0079-3","article-title":"Potentials of active safety and driver assistance systems","volume":"113","author":"Eichberger","year":"2011","journal-title":"ATZ worldwide eMagazine"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-4575(86)90007-2","article-title":"The effectiveness of safety belts in preventing fatalities","volume":"18","author":"Evans","year":"1986","journal-title":"Accident Analysis & Prevention"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1017\/XPS.2017.2","article-title":"Developing standards for post-hoc weighting in population-based survey experiments","volume":"4","author":"Franco","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Political Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0115","author":"Frazier"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0120","author":"Imberg"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3575","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2020.3038180","article-title":"Optimization of two-phase sampling designs with application to naturalistic driving studies","volume":"23","author":"Imberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions On Intelligent Transportation Systems"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1080\/00401706.2024.2374554","article-title":"Active sampling: A machine-learning-assisted framework for finite population inference with optimal subsamples","volume":"67","author":"Imberg","year":"2024","journal-title":"Technometrics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0135","first-page":"63","article-title":"How thirty years of focused safety development has influenced injury outcome in volvo cars","volume":"49","author":"Isaksson-Hellman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annual Proceedings. Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0140","series-title":"An introduction to statistical learning","volume":"Vol. 112","author":"James","year":"2013"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2010.10.020","article-title":"Crash avoidance potential of four passenger vehicle technologies","volume":"43","author":"Jermakian","year":"2011","journal-title":"Accident Analysis & Prevention"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2015.05.006","article-title":"Stratified feature sampling method for ensemble clustering of high dimensional data","volume":"48","author":"Jing","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pattern Recognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0155","author":"Kuhn"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3068","DOI":"10.1002\/aic.11639","article-title":"Impact of sampling method and scale on the measurement of mixing and the coefficient of variance","volume":"54","author":"Kukukov\u00e1","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aiche Journal"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1068\/p050437","article-title":"A theory of visual control of braking based on information about time-to-collision","volume":"5","author":"Lee","year":"1976","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2017.10.009","article-title":"How safe is tuning a radio?: Using The radio tuning task as a benchmark for distracted driving","volume":"110","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Accident Analysis & Prevention"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2021.3075291","article-title":"Adaptive batch size for federated learning in resource-constrained edge computing","volume":"22","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions On Mobile Computing"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0180","article-title":"Inverse probability weighting","volume":"352","author":"Mansournia","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2016.07.007","article-title":"A farewell to brake reaction times? Kinematics-dependent brake response in naturalistic rear-end emergencies","volume":"95","author":"Markkula","year":"2016","journal-title":"Accident Analysis & Prevention"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0190","series-title":"Conference on causal learning and reasoning","first-page":"559","article-title":"Causalcity: Complex simulations with agency for causal discovery and reasoning","author":"McDuff","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0195","first-page":"1","article-title":"Strata design for variance reduction in stochastic simulation","author":"Park","year":"2024","journal-title":"Technometrics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0200","series-title":"2nd international conference on ESAR \u201cExpert Symposium on Accident Research\u201d","first-page":"81","article-title":"Statistical and methodological foundations of the GIDAS accident survey system","author":"Pfeiffer","year":"2007"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0205","series-title":"Optimal design of experiments","author":"Pukelsheim","year":"1993"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0210","series-title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing","year":"2024"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87456","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2993730","article-title":"Survey on scenario-based safety assessment of automated vehicles","volume":"8","author":"Riedmaier","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0220","series-title":"Proceedings of IRCOBI conference","first-page":"618","article-title":"Autonomous emergency braking for vulnerable road users","author":"Ros\u00e9n","year":"2013"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0225","author":"Ruiz"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0230","series-title":"Bayesian decisions using regions of practical equivalence (ROPE): Foundations","author":"Schwaferts","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-1404-4_5","article-title":"Stratified sampling","author":"Singh","year":"1996","journal-title":"Elements of survey sampling"},{"issue":"sup1","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S126","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2019.1605167","article-title":"Quantifying vision zero: Crash avoidance in rural and motorway accident scenarios by combination of ACC, AEB, and LKS projected to German accident occurrence","volume":"20","author":"Stark","year":"2019","journal-title":"Traffic Injury Prevention"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0245","series-title":"Annals of advances in automotive Medicine\/Annual scientific conference","first-page":"267","article-title":"Injury risk functions in frontal impacts using data from crash pulse recorders","volume":"Vol. 56","author":"Stigson","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0250","series-title":"51st AIAA\/ASME\/ASCE\/AHS\/ASC structures, structural dynamics, and materials conference 18th AIAA\/ASME\/AHS adaptive structures conference 12th","first-page":"2850","article-title":"Importance sampling: Promises and limitations","author":"Swiler","year":"2010"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0255","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1002\/wics.56","article-title":"Importance sampling: A review","volume":"2","author":"Tokdar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0260","series-title":"Analysis of naturalistic driving study data: Safer glances, driver inattention, and crash risk","author":"Victor","year":"2015"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2022.106821","article-title":"Causation analysis of crashes and near crashes using naturalistic driving data","volume":"177","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Accident Analysis & Prevention"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4046610","article-title":"Combining reachability analysis and importance sampling for accelerated evaluation of highway automated vehicles at pedestrian crossing","volume":"1","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ASME Letters In Dynamic Systems And Control"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0275","series-title":"27th international technical conference on the enhanced safety of vehicles (ESV), Yokohama, Japan","first-page":"3","article-title":"Harmonized approaches for baseline creation in prospective safety performance assessment of driving automation systems\u2019","author":"Wimmer","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0285","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v077.i01","article-title":"ranger: A fast implementation of random forests for high dimensional data in C++ and R","volume":"77","author":"Wright","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal Of Statistical Software"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1049\/itr2.12532","article-title":"Evaluation of comfort zone boundary based automated emergency braking algorithms for car-to-powered-two-wheeler crashes in China","volume":"18","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IET Intelligent Transport Systems"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0300","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2016.2582208","article-title":"Accelerated evaluation of automated vehicles safety in lane-change scenarios based on importance sampling techniques","volume":"18","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions On Intelligent Transportation Systems"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015_bib0305","series-title":"A new approach to AD\/ADAS test scenario generation using open-source intelligence and large language models","author":"Zorin","year":"2024"}],"container-title":["Journal of Safety Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0022437526001362?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0022437526001362?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T16:23:51Z","timestamp":1789489431000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0022437526001362"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"references-count":58,"alternative-id":["S0022437526001362"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015","relation":{},"ISSN":["0022-4375"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0022-4375","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Evaluation of adaptive sampling methods in scenario generation for virtual safety impact assessment of pre-crash safety systems","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Journal of Safety Research","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jsr.2026.07.015","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Published by Elsevier Ltd.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}