{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,4]],"date-time":"2026-10-04T17:22:25Z","timestamp":1791134545347,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,11,1]],"date-time":"2009-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1257033600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Medical Clinics of North America"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2009,11]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,11,21]],"date-time":"2009-11-21T05:51:28Z","timestamp":1258782688000},"page":"1225-1239","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Pigmentary Disorders"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"93","author":[{"given":"Paul T.","family":"Rose","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib1","series-title":"Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine","article-title":"Biology of melanocyte disorders","author":"Jimbow","year":"1999"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/S0733-8635(18)30663-6","article-title":"The melanocyte: its structure, function and subpopulations in skin, eyes and hair","volume":"6","author":"Boissy","year":"1988","journal-title":"Dermatol Clin"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1346-8138.1978.tb01041.x","article-title":"Vitiligo: the loss of pigment in skin, hair and eyes","volume":"5","author":"Lerner","year":"1978","journal-title":"J Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib4","series-title":"Andrews textbook of dermatology","first-page":"853","article-title":"Disturbances of pigmentation","year":"2006"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1159\/000131485","article-title":"Autoimmune etiology of generalized vitiligo","volume":"10","author":"Le Poole","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr Dir Autoimmun"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0749.2003.00023.x","article-title":"Evidence for an autoimmune pathogenesis of vitiligo","volume":"16","author":"Ongennae","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pigment Cell Res"},{"issue":"5152","key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1126\/science.8128228","article-title":"Regulation of melanin biosynthesis in the human epidermis tetrahydrobiopterin","volume":"263","author":"Schallreuter","year":"1994","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.det.2007.04.013","article-title":"Origin, clinical presentation and diagnosis of hypomelanotic skin disorders","volume":"25","author":"Mollet","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dermatol Clin"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0190-9622(88)70168-1","article-title":"Biology of hypopigmentation","volume":"19","author":"Bologna","year":"1988","journal-title":"J Am Acad Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2133.1968.tb12282.x","article-title":"Vitiligo, thyroid diseases and autoimmunity","volume":"80","author":"Cunliffe","year":"1968","journal-title":"Br J Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0749.2003.00070.x","article-title":"A clinical appraisal of vitiligo theories: is melanocyte loss a melanocytorrhagy","volume":"16","author":"Gauthier","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pigment Cell Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.2165\/00128071-200102030-00006","article-title":"Vitiligo: pathogenesis and treatment","volume":"2","author":"Njoo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am J Clin Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib13","first-page":"947","article-title":"Vitiligo and disorders of hypopigmentation","volume":"vol. 1, 2nd edition","author":"Ortonne","year":"2008"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1016\/S0190-9622(96)90691-X","article-title":"Guidelines of care for vitiligo","volume":"35","author":"Drake","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Am Acad Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-4362.1999.00794.x","article-title":"Wood's light in dermatology","volume":"38","author":"Asawanonda","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int J Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib16","series-title":"Lever's histopathology of the skin","first-page":"617","article-title":"Pigmentary disorders of the skin","author":"Spielvogel","year":"1997"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib17","series-title":"Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine","article-title":"Hypomelanoses and hypermelanoses","author":"Mosher","year":"1999"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2003.12.031","article-title":"Topical tacrolimus therapy for vitiligo: therapeutic responses and skin messenger RNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines","volume":"51","author":"Grimes","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Am Acad Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.det.2007.04.008","article-title":"Rational approach to the treatment of vitiligo and other hypomelanoses","volume":"25","author":"Hercogova","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dermatol Clin"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1080\/09546630802155057","article-title":"The efficacy of picrolimus 1% cream plus narrow band ultraviolet B in the treatment of vitiligo: a double blind placebo controlled clinical trial","volume":"20","author":"Esfandiarpour","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Dermatolog Treat"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib21","series-title":"Light related diseases and disorders of pigmentation","first-page":"488","article-title":"Clinical dermatology: a color guide to diagnosis and therapy","author":"Habif","year":"1989"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2230.2004.01477.x","article-title":"Treatment of vitiligo with the 308 nm excimer laser","volume":"29","author":"Esposito","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin Exp Dermatol"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.det.2007.04.009","article-title":"New and experimental treatment of vitiligo and other hypomelanoses","volume":"25","author":"Lotti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dermatol Clin"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.1958.01560020074009","article-title":"Leukomelanoderma subsequent to the application of monobenzylether of hydroquinone","volume":"77","author":"Canizares","year":"1958","journal-title":"Arch Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib25","series-title":"Eczematous eruptions in childhood, Hurwitz clinical pediatric dermatology","first-page":"49","year":"2006"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.1960.01580020025003","article-title":"Pityriasis alba: a ten year survey and review of the literature","volume":"82","author":"Wells","year":"1960","journal-title":"Arch Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1468-3083.2002.00494.x","article-title":"Pityriasis alba: a study of pathogenic factors","volume":"16","author":"Blessman Weber","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0560.1998.tb01761.x","article-title":"Numbers and differentiation status of melanocytes in idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis","volume":"25","author":"Wallace","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Cutan Pathol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.98.1.1","article-title":"White leaf shaped macules. Earliest visible sign of tuberous sclerosis","volume":"98","author":"Fitzpatrick","year":"1968","journal-title":"Arch Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1097\/01.qco.0000216624.21069.61","article-title":"Malessezia yeasts and pityriasis versicolor","volume":"19","author":"Crespo-Erchiga","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr Opin Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1016\/S0190-9622(08)81261-3","article-title":"Pityrosporum infections","volume":"31","author":"Faergemann","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Am Acad Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-7125(05)70410-7","article-title":"Pigmentary diseases, office dermatology Part I","volume":"82","author":"Kim","year":"1998","journal-title":"Med Clin North Am"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib33","series-title":"Treatment of skin disease: comprehensive therapeutic strategies","author":"Lebwohl","year":"2006"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1159\/000075047","article-title":"Single dose fluconazole versus itraconazole in pityriasis versicolor","volume":"208","author":"Partap","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dermatology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.111.1.40","article-title":"A new formula for depigmenting human skin","volume":"111","author":"Kligman","year":"1978","journal-title":"Arch Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib36","first-page":"324","article-title":"Treatment of melasma with hydroquinone","volume":"76","author":"Pathak","year":"1981","journal-title":"J Invest Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib37","first-page":"217","article-title":"The stepwise approach to the treatment of melasma","volume":"75","author":"Perez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cutis"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib38","first-page":"1","article-title":"Topical agents used in the management of hyperpigmentation","volume":"9","author":"Halder","year":"2004","journal-title":"Skin Therapy Lett"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1524-4725.2004.30106.x","article-title":"Efficacy of hydroquinone 2% versus tretinoin 0.025% as adjunct topical agents for chemical peeling in patients of melasma","volume":"30","author":"Nanda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dermatol Surg"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.131.12.1453","article-title":"Melasma etiologies and therapeutic considerations","volume":"131","author":"Grimes","year":"1995","journal-title":"Arch Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1524-4725.2004.30371.x","article-title":"Intense pulsed light for the treatment of refractory melasma in Asian persons","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dermatol Surg"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib42","series-title":"Andrews textbook of dermatology","article-title":"Contact dermatitis and drug reactions","year":"2006"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2383","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra031573","article-title":"Hereditary hemachromatosis, a new look at an old disease","volume":"350","author":"Pietrangelo","year":"2004","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib44","series-title":"Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine","first-page":"1918","article-title":"The hepatobiliary system and the skin","author":"Graham Brown","year":"1999"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9343(89)80149-4","article-title":"Prevalence of ancanthosis nigricans in an unselected population","volume":"87","author":"Stuart","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0190-9622(94)70128-8","article-title":"Acanthosis nigricans","volume":"3","author":"Schwartz","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Am Acad Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib47","series-title":"Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine","article-title":"The skin and disorders of the alimentary tract","author":"Graham-Brown","year":"1999"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1524-4725.2004.30346.x","article-title":"Treatment of acanthosis nigricans of the axillae using a long pulsed (5 msec) alexandrite laser","volume":"30","author":"Rosenbach","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dermatol Surg"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1177\/088307380201700808","article-title":"Neurofibromas in children with neurofibromatosis 1","volume":"17","author":"Rosser","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Child Neurol"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1177\/088307380201700802","article-title":"Neurofibromatosis 1: clinical manifestations and diagnostic criteria","volume":"17","author":"Friedman","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Child Neurol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1016\/S0190-9622(99)70075-7","article-title":"The diagnostic value of caf\u00e9 au lait macules","volume":"40","author":"Landau","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Am Acad Dermatol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib52","series-title":"Andrews textbook of dermatology","first-page":"547","article-title":"Genodermatoses and congenital anomalies","year":"2006"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198803173181106","article-title":"Neurofibromatosis 2","volume":"318","author":"Martuza","year":"1988","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"}],"container-title":["Medical Clinics of North America"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0025712509001060?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0025712509001060?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,23]],"date-time":"2019-05-23T20:19:15Z","timestamp":1558642755000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0025712509001060"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2009,11]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2009,11]]}},"alternative-id":["S0025712509001060"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.mcna.2009.08.005","relation":{},"ISSN":["0025-7125"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0025-7125","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2009,11]]}}}