{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T17:23:51Z","timestamp":1793381031603,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":116,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Neuroscience &amp; Biobehavioral Reviews"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,25]],"date-time":"2025-09-25T17:56:09Z","timestamp":1758822969000},"page":"106384","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Novel psychoactive substances and psychosis: A comprehensive systematic review of epidemiology, clinical features, neurobiology, and treatment"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"178","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1717-2530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valerio","family":"Ricci","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefania","family":"Chiappini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Martinotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Maina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2017.1287373","article-title":"Analytical confirmation of synthetic cannabinoids in a cohort of 179 presentations with acute recreational drug toxicity to an emergency department in London, UK in the first half of 2015","volume":"55","author":"Abouchedid","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2016.1190016","article-title":"Acute intoxication of four individuals following use of the synthetic cannabinoid MAB-CHMINACA","volume":"54","author":"Adamowicz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1893","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S107622","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of synthetic cannabinoid-induced psychosis in relation to schizophrenia: a single-center cross-sectional analysis of concurrently hospitalized patients","volume":"12","author":"Altintas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2017.10.042","article-title":"Three fatalities associated with the synthetic cannabinoids 5F-ADB, 5F-PB-22, and AB-CHMINACA","volume":"281","author":"Angerer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2015.1079325","article-title":"Phencyclidine analog use in Sweden\u2014intoxication cases involving 3-MeO-PCP and 4-MeO-PCP from the STRIDA project","volume":"53","author":"B\u00e4ckberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1465-3362.2012.00519.x","article-title":"Patterns of synthetic cannabinoid use in Australia","volume":"32","author":"Barratt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Rev."},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881116658990","article-title":"Psychiatric comorbidity associated with synthetic cannabinoid use compared to cannabis","volume":"30","author":"Bassir Nia","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"issue":"46","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15150","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3223-14.2014","article-title":"Baths salts, spice, and related designer drugs: the science behind the headlines","volume":"34","author":"Baumann","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/734749","article-title":"25C-NBOMe: preliminary data on pharmacology, psychoactive effects, and toxicity of a new potent and dangerous hallucinogenic drug","volume":"2014","author":"Bersani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci8070133","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoid use in a case series of patients with psychosis presenting to acute psychiatric settings","volume":"8","author":"Bonaccorso","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2014.07.009","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoid use among patients in residential substance use disorder treatment: prevalence, motives, and correlates","volume":"143","author":"Bonar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1007\/s13181-013-0287-x","article-title":"Recurrent seizures and serotonin syndrome following \"2C-I\" ingestion","volume":"9","author":"Bosak","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Toxicol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-244X-12-221","article-title":"Amphetamine-induced psychosis--a separate diagnostic entity or primary psychosis triggered in the vulnerable?","volume":"12","author":"Bramness","year":"2012","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"issue":"7\u20138","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.1626","article-title":"The rise of new psychoactive substance use in Australia","volume":"6","author":"Burns","year":"2014","journal-title":"Drug Test. Anal."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2014.08.005","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoids: epidemiology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications","volume":"144","author":"Castaneto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-018-0023-x","article-title":"Structural connectivity in adolescent synthetic cannabinoid users with and without ADHD","volume":"14","author":"\u00c7elik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1080\/15504263.2014.929364","article-title":"Use of synthetic cannabinoids in patients with psychotic disorders: case series","volume":"10","author":"Celofiga","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Dual Diagn."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-2675","article-title":"Health risk behaviors with synthetic cannabinoids versus marijuana","volume":"139","author":"Clayton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-017-4546-4","article-title":"The effects of synthetic cannabinoids on executive function","volume":"234","author":"Cohen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-016-0694-1","article-title":"Adverse effects of synthetic cannabinoids: management of acute toxicity and withdrawal","volume":"18","author":"Cooper","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib21","first-page":"89","article-title":"\"Legal highs\": safe and legal \"heavens\"? A study on the diffusion, knowledge and risk awareness of novel psychoactive drugs among students in the UK","volume":"49","author":"Corazza","year":"2014","journal-title":"Riv. Psichiatr"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2019.1647344","article-title":"Characteristics and circumstances of synthetic cannabinoid-related death","volume":"58","author":"Darke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/s13181-014-0460-x","article-title":"Presentations to the emergency department following cannabis use\u2014a multi-centre case series from ten european countries","volume":"11","author":"Dines","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Toxicol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib24","article-title":"Severe psychosis, drug dependence, and hepatitis c related to slamming mephedrone","volume":"2016","author":"Dolengevich-Segal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Case Rep. Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.3-21.v1","article-title":"A case of severe psychosis induced by novel recreational drugs","volume":"3","author":"Dragogna","year":"2014","journal-title":"F1000Res"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2009.01.002","article-title":"GHB in Sydney, Australia, 2000\u20132006: a case study of the EDRS as a strategic early warning system","volume":"20","author":"Dunn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib27","first-page":"159","article-title":"Persistent psychosis after abuse of high dose of zolpidem","volume":"6","author":"Eslami-Shahrbabaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Addict. Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib28","unstructured":"European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), 2017. High-risk drug use and new psychoactive substances. EMCDDA Rapid Communication, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib29","unstructured":"European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), 2022. European Drug Report 2022: Trends and Developments. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib30","series-title":"European Drug Report 2022: Trends and Developments","author":"European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)","year":"2024"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2016.02.001","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoids\u2014further evidence supporting the relationship between cannabinoids and psychosis","volume":"79","author":"Fattore","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2011.00060","article-title":"Beyond THC: the new generation of cannabinoid designer drugs","volume":"5","author":"Fattore","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Behav. Neurosci."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1080\/10550887.2011.609807","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoid exposures reported to texas poison centers","volume":"30","author":"Forrester","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Addict. Dis."},{"issue":"24","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2090","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000437297.05570.a2","article-title":"Ischemic stroke after use of the synthetic marijuana \"spice\"","volume":"81","author":"Freeman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib35","first-page":"1859","article-title":"Changes in delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) concentrations in cannabis over time: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"115","author":"Freeman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.12659\/AJCR.936209","article-title":"A case of synthetic cannabinoid (K2)-induced posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES)","volume":"23","author":"Ghazanfar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Case Rep."},{"issue":"1377","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib37","first-page":"18","article-title":"Hospitalisation associated with use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2","volume":"126","author":"Glue","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Z. Med. J."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/643878","article-title":"Acute effects of the novel psychoactive drug 2C-B on emotions","volume":"2015","author":"Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1111\/jpm.12297","article-title":"A systematic review of the effects of novel psychoactive substances 'legal highs' on people with severe mental illness","volume":"23","author":"Gray","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Ment. Health Nurs."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib40","first-page":"53","article-title":"Pharmacology, toxicology, and adverse effects of synthetic cannabinoid drugs","volume":"26","author":"Gurney","year":"2014","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Rev."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemermed.2012.07.061","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoid intoxication: a case series and review","volume":"44","author":"Harris","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Emerg. Med."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2016.1139715","article-title":"Intoxications involving the fentanyl analogs acetylfentanyl, 4-methoxybutyrfentanyl and furanylfentanyl: results from the Swedish STRIDA project","volume":"54","author":"Helander","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2012.04078.x","article-title":"Acute toxicity due to the confirmed consumption of synthetic cannabinoids: clinical and laboratory findings","volume":"108","author":"Hermanns-Clausen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2017.11.036","article-title":"Multiple fatalities in the north of england associated with synthetic fentanyl analogue exposure: detection and quantitation, a case series from early 2017","volume":"282","author":"Hikin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2018.10.004","article-title":"Spicing it up\u2014synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and psychosis\u2014a systematic review","volume":"28","author":"Hobbs","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2014.11.033","article-title":"Monitoring new psychoactive substances (NPS) in the Netherlands: data from the drug market and the poisons information centre","volume":"147","author":"Hondebrink","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annemergmed.2012.03.007","article-title":"A characterization of synthetic cannabinoid exposures reported to The National poison data system in 2010","volume":"60","author":"Hoyte","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Emerg. Med."},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2011.11010176","article-title":"Psychosis associated with synthetic cannabinoid agonists: a case series","volume":"168","author":"Hurst","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemermed.2013.04.017","article-title":"Bath salts intoxication: a case series","volume":"45","author":"Imam","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Emerg. Med."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1080\/00952990.2016.1240799","article-title":"Characteristics associated with synthetic cannabinoid use among patients treated in a public psychiatric emergency setting","volume":"43","author":"Joseph","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abus."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1080\/00952990.2016.1176177","article-title":"A multicenter retrospective survey of poisoning after consumption of products containing novel psychoactive substances from 2013 to 2014 in Japan","volume":"42","author":"Kamijo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abus."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s12954-017-0138-1","article-title":"Assessing the experience of using synthetic cannabinoids by means of interpretative phenomenological analysis","volume":"14","author":"Kassai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Harm Reduct. J."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.5811\/westjem.2016.2.29519","article-title":"Case series of synthetic cannabinoid intoxication from one toxicology center","volume":"17","author":"Katz","year":"2016","journal-title":"West. J. Emerg. Med."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/ajad.12318","article-title":"Catatonia secondary to synthetic cannabinoid use in two patients with no previous psychosis","volume":"25","author":"Khan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Addict."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2015.12.046","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoid drug use as a cause or contributory cause of death \u2013 case series","volume":"260","author":"Labay","year":"2016","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.162613","article-title":"Target and suspect screening of (new) psychoactive substances in south Korean wastewater by LC-HRMS","volume":"875","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-014-0553-6","article-title":"A 'spicy' encephalopathy: synthetic cannabinoids as cause of encephalopathy and seizure","volume":"18","author":"Louh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-020-02693-7","article-title":"Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects","volume":"94","author":"Luethi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2016.1263663","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of synthetic cannabinoid use in a large urban psychiatric emergency setting","volume":"52","author":"Manseau","year":"2017","journal-title":"Subst. Use Misuse"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bks136","article-title":"Analysis of synthetic cathinones commonly found in bath salts in human performance and postmortem toxicology: method development, drug distribution and interpretation of results","volume":"37","author":"Marinetti","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2013.03.026","article-title":"Trends in counterfeits amphetamine-type stimulants after its prohibition in Brazil","volume":"229","author":"Mariotti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2011.07.009","article-title":"Interaction of mephedrone with dopamine and serotonin targets in rats","volume":"22","author":"Mart\u00ednez-Clemente","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.2174\/1871527316666170413101839","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoids: psychopharmacology, clinical aspects, psychotic onset","volume":"16","author":"Martinotti","year":"2017","journal-title":"CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets"},{"issue":"13","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6944","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18136944","article-title":"Club drugs and psychiatric sequelae: an issue of vulnerability and previous psychiatric history","volume":"18","author":"Martinotti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib65","first-page":"567","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoids: clinical case series of patients with psychotic onset in an Italian inpatient unit","volume":"16","author":"Martinotti","year":"2022","journal-title":"CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2677","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-019-05238-8","article-title":"Psychopathological symptoms associated with synthetic cannabinoid use: a comparison with natural cannabis \u2013 case-control study","volume":"236","author":"Mensen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc1313655","article-title":"An outbreak of exposure to a novel synthetic cannabinoid","volume":"370","author":"Monte","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib68","first-page":"1387","article-title":"Club drugs and psychiatric outcomes: a descriptive case series from Spain","volume":"17","author":"Montemitro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pharm. (Basel)"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2017.54","article-title":"Acute effects of LSD on amygdala activity during processing of fearful stimuli in healthy subjects","volume":"7","author":"Mueller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2009.12.001","article-title":"The synthetic cannabinoid spice as a trigger for an acute exacerbation of cannabis induced recurrent psychotic episodes","volume":"118","author":"M\u00fcller","year":"2010","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20341","article-title":"Traditional marijuana, high-potency cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids: increasing risk for psychosis","volume":"15","author":"Murray","year":"2016","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"issue":"9566","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)60464-4","article-title":"Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse","volume":"369","author":"Nutt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet (Lond. Engl. )"},{"issue":"9752","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61462-6","article-title":"Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis","volume":"376","author":"Nutt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet (Lond. Engl. )"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2019.109902","article-title":"Types of synthetic cannabinoids seized from illicit trafficking in the territory of the siberian federal district (Russia) between 2009\u20132018","volume":"302","author":"Oberenko","year":"2019","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s13181-014-0451-y","article-title":"Prevalence of rhabdomyolysis in sympathomimetic toxicity: a comparison of stimulants","volume":"11","author":"O'Connor","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Toxicol."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2012.0004","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoid-induced psychosis: two adolescent cases","volume":"22","author":"Oluwabusi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2019.1688341","article-title":"Natural psychoactive substance-related exposures reported to United States poison control centers, 2000\u20132017","volume":"58","author":"O'Neill-Dee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia Pa. )"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.2312","article-title":"\"Spiceophrenia\": a systematic overview of \"Spice\"-related psychopathological issues and a case report","volume":"28","author":"Papanti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Psychopharmacol. Clin. Exp."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bkz064","article-title":"The trouble with kratom: analytical and interpretative issues involving mitragynine","volume":"43","author":"Papsun","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjp.0707442","article-title":"The diverse CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology of three plant cannabinoids: delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and delta9-tetrahydrocannabivarin","volume":"153","author":"Pertwee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2023.115053","article-title":"First episode psychosis with and without the use of cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids: psychopathology, global functioning and suicidal ideation and antipsychotic effectiveness","volume":"320","author":"Ricci","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2025.06.025","article-title":"Alexithymia and psychopathological dimensions in First-Episode psychosis: comparative patterns in natural cannabis versus synthetic cannabinoid users","volume":"189","author":"Ricci","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"issue":"27","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6527a2","article-title":"Acute poisonings from synthetic cannabinoids \u2013 50 U.S. Toxicology investigators consortium registry sites, 2010\u20132015","volume":"65","author":"Riederer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mmwr. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib84","article-title":"First-episode of synthetic cannabinoid-induced psychosis in a young adult, successfully managed with hospitalization and risperidone","volume":"2016","author":"Roberto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Case Rep. Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2012.04.034","article-title":"\"Legal highs\"\u2014toxicity in the clinical and medico-legal aspect as exemplified by suicide with bk-MBDB administration","volume":"222","author":"Rojek","year":"2012","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2017.04.044","article-title":"Clinical and financial implications of emergency department visits for synthetic marijuana","volume":"35","author":"Rowley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20174","article-title":"Novel psychoactive substances of interest for psychiatry","volume":"14","author":"Schifano","year":"2015","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.2606","article-title":"The risk of violence associated with novel psychoactive substance misuse in patients presenting to acute mental health services","volume":"32","author":"Shafi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Psychopharmacol."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e989","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.15m09938","article-title":"Characteristics of synthetic cannabinoid and cannabis users admitted to a psychiatric hospital: a comparative study","volume":"77","author":"Shalit","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27540","DOI":"10.3402\/jchimp.v5.27540","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoids: the multi-organ failure and metabolic derangements associated with getting high","volume":"5","author":"Sherpa","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Community Hosp. Intern. Med. Perspect."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.2300","article-title":"Novel psychoactive substances as a novel challenge for health professionals: results from an Italian survey","volume":"28","author":"Simonato","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2022.103790","article-title":"Behavioral patterns of people who use synthetic psychostimulants: results of a qualitative study in st. Petersburg, russia","volume":"107","author":"Skochilov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1994.03950020022002","article-title":"Dose-response study of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans. II. Subjective effects and preliminary results of a new rating scale","volume":"51","author":"Strassman","year":"1994","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psym.2014.11.002","article-title":"Toxicities associated with NBOMe ingestion\u2014a novel class of potent hallucinogens: a case series","volume":"56","author":"Suzuki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychosomatics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2016_60","article-title":"Pharmacological and toxicological effects of synthetic cannabinoids and their metabolites","volume":"32","author":"Tai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1007\/s13181-012-0232-4","article-title":"Psychosis from a bath salt product containing flephedrone and MDPV with serum, urine, and product quantification","volume":"8","author":"Thornton","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Toxicol."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2013.770870","article-title":"Synthetic cannabinoid use associated with acute kidney injury","volume":"51","author":"Thornton","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i6848","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i6848","article-title":"Novel psychoactive substances: types, mechanisms of action, and effects","volume":"356","author":"Tracy","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2015.1100306","article-title":"An outbreak of acute delirium from exposure to the synthetic cannabinoid AB-CHMINACA - case series","volume":"53","author":"Tyndall","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2020). World Drug Report 2020. United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.XI.6.","DOI":"10.18356\/c8bbbf82-en"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2016.1166508","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of \u03b1-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (\u03b1-PVP) poisoning","volume":"54","author":"Umebachi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. toxicol. (Phila. Pa,)"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-016-1002-7","article-title":"Psychosis associated with acute recreational drug toxicity: a european case series - retrospective review of emergency presentations","volume":"16","author":"Vallersnes","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2017.1312002","article-title":"Underestimated impact of novel psychoactive substances: laboratory confirmation of recreational drug toxicity in Oslo, Norway - retrospective case series","volume":"55","author":"Vallersnes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"issue":"1-3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2011.04.022","article-title":"Persistent psychosis following the use of spice","volume":"130","author":"Van der Veer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1097\/PEC.0b013e3181e4f416","article-title":"A teenager with agitation: higher than she should have climbed","volume":"26","author":"Vearrier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Emerg. care"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2016.1171329","article-title":"Epidemiology and clinical features of toxicity following recreational use of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists: a report from the United Kingdom national poisons information service - case series analysis","volume":"54","author":"Waugh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2017.00156","article-title":"Synthetic cathinone and cannabinoid designer drugs pose a major risk for public health","volume":"8","author":"Weinstein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib108","series-title":"Cannabinoids and Neuropsychiatric Disorders","first-page":"177","article-title":"Synthetic cannabis and new psychoactive substances","author":"Weinstein","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib109","first-page":"1","article-title":"Different tokes for different folks: use of cannabis products among a longitudinal cohort of people with heroin dependence","author":"Wilson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"issue":"1-2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2012.12.011","article-title":"Synthetic cannabis: a comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample","volume":"131","author":"Winstock","year":"2013","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib111","first-page":"11","article-title":"Methoxetamine: an early report on the motivations for use, effect profile and prevalence of use in a UK clubbing sample","volume":"34","author":"Winstock","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Rev."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2010.531021","article-title":"Case series of individuals with analytically confirmed acute mephedrone toxicity","volume":"48","author":"Wood","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol. (Philos. )"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2015.1004179","article-title":"Prevalence of use and acute toxicity associated with the use of NBOMe drugs - analysis of emergency department presentations","volume":"53","author":"Wood","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib114","unstructured":"World Health Organization. (2018). International classification of diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics (11th Revision)."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.09.030","article-title":"Next generation of novel psychoactive substances on the horizon \u2013 a complex problem to face","volume":"157","author":"Zawilska","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"issue":"1-3","key":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384_bib116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2012.08.027","article-title":"25C-NBOMe--new potent hallucinogenic substance identified on the drug market","volume":"227","author":"Zuba","year":"2013","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."}],"container-title":["Neuroscience &amp; Biobehavioral Reviews"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0149763425003859?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0149763425003859?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T14:23:11Z","timestamp":1765808591000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0149763425003859"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]},"references-count":116,"alternative-id":["S0149763425003859"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384","relation":{},"ISSN":["0149-7634"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0149-7634","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Novel psychoactive substances and psychosis: A comprehensive systematic review of epidemiology, clinical features, neurobiology, and treatment","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106384","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"106384"}}