{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T20:00:05Z","timestamp":1790625605649,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2027,1,1]],"date-time":"2027-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1798761600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2027,1,1]],"date-time":"2027-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1798761600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2027,1,1]],"date-time":"2027-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1798761600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2027,1,1]],"date-time":"2027-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1798761600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2027,1,1]],"date-time":"2027-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1798761600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2027,1,1]],"date-time":"2027-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1798761600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2027,1,1]],"date-time":"2027-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1798761600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100020595","name":"National Science and Technology Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["113-2222-E-167 -003 -MY2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["113-2222-E-167 -003 -MY2"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100020595","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100020595","name":"National Science and Technology Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["113-2221-E-182-035"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["113-2221-E-182-035"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100020595","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2027,1]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T15:47:23Z","timestamp":1788882443000},"page":"128705","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["A unified machine learning framework for oral cancer classification using Raman spectra from tissue, serum, and urine"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"365","author":[{"given":"Mukta","family":"Sharma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ajay","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9969-2112","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.V.","family":"Arularasu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chia-Lung","family":"Tsai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shiang-Fu","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng-Chia","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijom.2022.02.015","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy in oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer: a systematic review","volume":"51","author":"Faur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg."},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2896","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics12122896","article-title":"Label-free optical spectroscopy for early detection of oral cancer","volume":"12","author":"Maryam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diagnostics"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1038\/s41432-022-0239-x","article-title":"How effective is toluidine blue for screening and diagnosis of oral cancer and premalignant lesions?","volume":"23","author":"Mills","year":"2022","journal-title":"Evidence-Based Dent."},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b4","article-title":"Optimizing oral cancer screening: Latent class analysis of chairside adjuncts in a high-risk dental cohort","volume":"17","author":"Gade","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdsr.2023.10.003","article-title":"Salivary biomarkers for early detection of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and head\/neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC): A systematic review and network meta-analysis","volume":"60","author":"Khijmatgar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Jpn. Dent. Sci. Rev."},{"issue":"21","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7598","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14217598","article-title":"Salivary and serum liquid biopsy biomarkers for HPV-associated oral and oropharyngeal cancer: A narrative review","volume":"14","author":"Warnakulasuriya","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2377","DOI":"10.1002\/jrs.5940","article-title":"The accuracy of Raman spectroscopy in the detection and diagnosis of oral cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"51","author":"Zhan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Raman Spectrosc."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22031206","article-title":"Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy in oral cancer diagnosis","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/erm.2024.26","article-title":"Advances in Raman spectroscopy for characterising oral cancer and oral potentially malignant disorders","volume":"26","author":"Hanna","year":"2024","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Mol. Med."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.3390\/ndt4030018","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy-based, non-destructive biomedical diagnosis","volume":"4","author":"Shirke","year":"2026","journal-title":"NDT"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2025.1690063","article-title":"Recent advances in applications of artificial intelligence-assisted Raman spectroscopy in diagnosis of cancers","volume":"12","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Biosci."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13050557","article-title":"Molecular fingerprint detection using Raman and infrared spectroscopy technologies for cancer detection: a progress review","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s12672-026-05190-y","article-title":"Training and validation of a 1D CNN model for accurate three-class classification of oral cancer using serum Raman spectroscopy","author":"Sharma","year":"2026","journal-title":"Discov. Oncol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-024-19040-y","article-title":"Automatic oral cancer detection and classification using modified local texture descriptor and machine learning algorithms","volume":"84","author":"Yaduvanshi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Multimedia Tools Appl."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s43074-023-00098-0","article-title":"Recent application of Raman spectroscopy in tumor diagnosis: from conventional methods to artificial intelligence fusion","volume":"4","author":"Qi","year":"2023","journal-title":"PhotoniX"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1659","DOI":"10.1039\/D3AY02250A","article-title":"A deep learning method for multi-task intelligent detection of oral cancer based on optical fiber Raman spectroscopy","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b17","series-title":"Deep multimodal learning with missing modality: A survey","author":"Wu","year":"2024"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18464","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-22197-x","article-title":"Fused Raman spectroscopic analysis of blood and saliva delivers high accuracy for head and neck cancer diagnostics","volume":"12","author":"Koster","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22544","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-01681-w","article-title":"Effect of data leakage in brain MRI classification using 2d convolutional neural networks","volume":"11","author":"Yagis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1984","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11071984","article-title":"Identification of healthy tissue from malignant tissue in surgical margin using raman spectroscopy in oral cancer surgeries","volume":"11","author":"Sharma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b21","series-title":"Deep learning","author":"Goodfellow","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b22","series-title":"Adam: A method for stochastic optimization","author":"Kingma","year":"2014"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b23","volume":"vol. 4","author":"Smola","year":"1998"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"issue":"18","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2884","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12182884","article-title":"Vibrational spectroscopy fingerprinting in medicine: from molecular to clinical practice","volume":"12","author":"Balan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Materials"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vibspec.2003.11.003","article-title":"First investigations of two important components of low density lipoproteins by Raman spectroscopy: the cholesteryl linoleate and arachidonate","volume":"34","author":"Bresson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vib. Spectrosc."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1080\/05704920701551530","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy of biological tissues","volume":"42","author":"Movasaghi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc. Rev."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2016.036","article-title":"Using Raman spectroscopy to characterize biological materials","volume":"11","author":"Butler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"issue":"8\u201310","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1080\/05704928.2021.1946076","article-title":"Clinical applications of infrared and Raman spectroscopy in the fields of cancer and infectious diseases","volume":"56","author":"Paraskevaidi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc. Rev."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1039\/b304992b","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy for identification of epithelial cancers","volume":"126","author":"Stone","year":"2004","journal-title":"Faraday Discuss."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1002\/bip.20398","article-title":"Discrimination of normal, inflammatory, premalignant, and malignant oral tissue: a Raman spectroscopy study","volume":"81","author":"Malini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biopolym.: Orig. Res. Biomol."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.11500","article-title":"Near-infrared Raman spectroscopy for optical diagnosis of lung cancer","volume":"107","author":"Huang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14970","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-14872-1","article-title":"Proof-of-concept Raman spectroscopy study aimed to differentiate thyroid follicular patterned lesions","volume":"7","author":"Rau","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8091313","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy analysis for optical diagnosis of oral cancer detection","volume":"8","author":"Jeng","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1788","DOI":"10.1097\/JS9.0000000000002201","article-title":"Label-free discrimination analysis of breast cancer tumor and adjacent tissues of patients after neoadjuvant treatment using Raman spectroscopy: a diagnostic study","volume":"111","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1002\/jrs.1734","article-title":"Reference database of Raman spectra of biological molecules","volume":"38","author":"Gelder","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Raman Spectrosc."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-017-0465-y","article-title":"Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy of blood serum based on gold nanoparticles for the diagnosis of the oral squamous cell carcinoma","volume":"16","author":"Tan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vibspec.2025.103858","article-title":"Comparative assessment of serum dilution and pure samples for Raman-based oral cancer detection: Evaluating dilution rate performance","author":"Sharma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vib. Spectrosc."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3649","DOI":"10.1007\/s10103-022-03646-5","article-title":"Breast cancer chemotherapy treatment monitoring based on serum sample Raman spectroscopy","volume":"37","author":"la Torre-Guti\u00e9rrez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lasers Med. Sci."},{"issue":"51","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50049","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.4c00591","article-title":"Unveiling the molecular secrets: a comprehensive review of Raman spectroscopy in biological research","volume":"9","author":"Chandra","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1080\/0886022X.2024.2375741","article-title":"Utilizing Raman spectroscopy for urinalysis to diagnose acute kidney injury stages in cardiac surgery patients","volume":"46","author":"Sharma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ren. Fail."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/05704928.2018.1562938","article-title":"Non-invasive disease diagnosis using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy of urine and saliva","volume":"55","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc. Rev."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b43","article-title":"A Raman spectral marker for the iso-octyl chain structure of cholesterol","volume":"5","author":"Simeral","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Sci. Adv."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-4622(99)00060-5","article-title":"Identification of \u03b2-turn and random coil amide III infrared bands for secondary structure estimation of proteins","volume":"80","author":"Cai","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biophys. Chem."},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b45","first-page":"26","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy as a tool for investigating lipid protein interactions","volume":"24","author":"Petersen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Spectrosc. (Santa Monica)"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2348","DOI":"10.1002\/jrs.6204","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy in cell biology and microbiology","volume":"52","author":"Pezzotti","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Raman Spectrosc."},{"issue":"16","key":"10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705_b47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4829","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11164829","article-title":"Raman spectral characterization of urine for rapid diagnosis of acute kidney injury","volume":"11","author":"Jeng","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."}],"container-title":["Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S138614252601276X?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S138614252601276X?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T19:24:41Z","timestamp":1790623481000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S138614252601276X"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2027,1]]},"references-count":47,"alternative-id":["S138614252601276X"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705","relation":{},"ISSN":["1386-1425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1386-1425","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2027,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"A unified machine learning framework for oral cancer classification using Raman spectra from tissue, serum, and urine","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.saa.2026.128705","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"128705"}}