{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T18:43:43Z","timestamp":1789757023756,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,9,1]],"date-time":"2010-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1283299200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,9]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,3]],"date-time":"2010-08-03T10:31:02Z","timestamp":1280831462000},"page":"232-240","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Robert Koch and the invention of the carrier state: tropical medicine, veterinary infections and epidemiology around 1900"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"41","author":[{"given":"Christoph","family":"Gradmann","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib1","unstructured":"Berlin, Staatsbibliothek Preu\u00dfischer Kulturbesitz (SBPK)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib2","unstructured":"Berlin, Robert Koch-Institut (RKI) Archives"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib3","unstructured":"Amsterdamska, O. (2003). Standardizing epidemics: Infection, inheritance, and environment in prewar experimental epidemiology. In J. P. Gaudilli\u00e8re, & I. L\u00f6wy (Eds.), Heredity and infection: The history of disease transmission (pp. 135\u2013179). London: Routledge."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1086\/448643","article-title":"\u2018Where every prospect pleases and only man is vile\u2019: Laboratory medicine as colonial discourse","volume":"18","author":"Anderson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Critical Inquiry"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arnold, D. (Ed.). (1996). Warm climates and western medicine: The emergence of tropical medicine, 1500\u20131900. Amsterdam: Rodopi.","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004418448"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib6","first-page":"11","article-title":"Versuch und Irrtum: Kolonialmedizin in Kamerun und die Anf\u00e4nge der Pharmaindustrie","volume":"294","author":"Bauche","year":"2006","journal-title":"Iz3w"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib7","unstructured":"Bauche, M. (2007). Trypanosomen und Tinbeef. Medizinisches Wissen um Schlafkrankheit zwischen Kamerun und Deutschland, 1910\u20131914. http:\/\/www.uni-koeln.de\/phil-fak\/afrikanistik\/kant\/data\/BM1_kant1.pdf. (Accessed 25 November 2009)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib8","series-title":"Bakterien in Krieg und Frieden: Eine Geschichte der medizinischen Bakteriologie in Deutschland 1890\u20131933","author":"Berger","year":"2009"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2009.09.006","article-title":"Causation and models of disease in epidemiology","volume":"40","author":"Broadbendt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib10","series-title":"Robert Koch: A life in medicine and bacteriology","author":"Brock","year":"1988"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/37.3.260","article-title":"Life before model systems: General zoology at August Weismann\u2019s Institute","volume":"37","author":"Churchill","year":"1997","journal-title":"American Zoologist"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib12","unstructured":"Cooper, F., & Stoler, A. L. (1997). Between metropole and colony: Rethinking a research agenda. In idem (Eds.), Tensions of empire: Colonial cultures in a bourgeois world (pp. 1\u201356). Berkeley & London: University of California Press."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib13","series-title":"Science and empire: East Coast Fever in Rhodesia and the Transvaal","author":"Cranefield","year":"1991"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib14","first-page":"293","article-title":"Scienza tedesca e universit\u00e0 italiana: Recezione di modelli esteri nell\u2019istitutionalizzazione delle discipline igieniche in Italia (1885\u20131900)","volume":"33","author":"D\u2019Orazio","year":"1998","journal-title":"Medizinhistorisches Journal"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib15","series-title":"Suppressing the diseases of animals and man: Theobald Smith, epidemiologist","author":"Dolman","year":"2003"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib16","unstructured":"Eckart, W. U. (1996). \u2018Der gr\u00f6\u00dfte Versuch, den die Einbildungskraft ersinnen kann\u2019: Der Krieg als hygienisch-bakteriologisches Laboratorium und Erfahrungsfeld. In W. U. Eckart, & C. Gradmann (Eds.), Die Medizin und der Erste Weltkrieg (pp. 299\u2013319). Freiburg im Breisgau: Centaurus."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib17","series-title":"Medizin und Kolonialimperialismus in Deutschland 1884\u20131945","author":"Eckart","year":"1997"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib18","first-page":"83","article-title":"Malaria and colonialism in the German colonies New Guinea and the Cameroons: Research, control, thoughts of eradication","volume":"40","author":"Eckart","year":"1998","journal-title":"Parassitologia"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1080\/03919710210001714323","article-title":"The colony as a laboratory: German sleeping sickness campaigns in German East-Africa and in Togo, 1900\u20131914","volume":"24","author":"Eckart","year":"2002","journal-title":"History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib20","series-title":"Grundri\u00df der Hygiene: f\u00fcr Studierende und praktische \u00c4rzte, Medizinal- und Verwaltungsbeamte","author":"Fl\u00fcgge","year":"1889"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1093\/jhmas\/jrj002","article-title":"Veterinary immunology as colonial science: Method and quantification in the investigation of horsesickness in South Africa, c. 1905\u20131945","volume":"61","author":"Gilfoyle","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib22","unstructured":"Gradmann, C. (2005). Das Ma\u00df der Krankheit: das pathologische Tierexperiment in der medizinischen Bakteriologie Robert Kochs. In C. Borck, V. Hess, & H. Schmidgen (Eds.), Ma\u00df und Eigensinn. Versuche im Anschlu\u00df an Georges Canghuilhem (pp. 71\u201390). M\u00fcnchen: Fink."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.25162\/medhist-2008-0005","article-title":"Alles eine Frage der Methode. Zur Historizit\u00e4t der Kochschen Postulate 1840\u20132000","volume":"43","author":"Gradmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Medizinhistorisches Journal"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib24","series-title":"Laboratory disease: Robert Koch\u2019s medical bacteriology","author":"Gradmann","year":"2009"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gradmann, C., & Hess, V. (Eds.). (2008). Vaccines and sera as medical, industrial and administrative objects 1880\u20131930. Science in Context, 21(2), 145\u2013310.","DOI":"10.1017\/S026988970800166X"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib26","series-title":"A history of epidemiologic methods and concepts","first-page":"199","article-title":"Methods of outbreak investigation in the \u2018Era of Bacteriology\u2019 1880\u20131920","author":"Hardy","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib27","series-title":"Die Methoden der Bakterien-Forschung","author":"Hueppe","year":"1885"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib28","unstructured":"Kleine, F. K. (1912). Ergenisse der Forschungen Robert Kochs \u00fcber das K\u00fcstenfieber der Rinder und \u00fcber die Pferdesterbe gelegentlich seiner letzten Expedition nach S\u00fcdafrika. In R. Koch, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 2.2 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 799\u2013805). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1905)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib29","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912a). Die \u00c4tiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begr\u00fcndet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol. 1 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 5\u201325). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1876)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib30","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912b). Untersuchungen \u00fcber die \u00c4tiologie der Wundinfektionskrankheiten. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol. 1 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 61\u2013108). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1878)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib31","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912c). Die \u00c4tiologie der Tuberkulose. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol. 1 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 467\u2013565). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1884)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912d). Reiseberichte \u00fcber Rinderpest, Bubonepest in Indien und Afrika, Tsetse- oder Surrakrankheit, Texasfieber, tropische Malaria, Schwarzwasserfieber. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol. 2 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 689\u2013742). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1898)","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-39506-6"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib33","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912e). Erster Bericht \u00fcber die T\u00e4tigkeit der Malariaexpedition. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 2.1 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 389\u2013396). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1899)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib34","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912f). Dritter Bericht \u00fcber die T\u00e4tigkeit der Malariaexpedition. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 2.1 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 404\u2013411). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1900)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib35","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912g). F\u00fcnfter Bericht \u00fcber die T\u00e4tigkeit der Malariaexpedition. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 2.1 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 416\u2013417). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1900)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib36","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912h). Schlu\u00dfbericht \u00fcber die T\u00e4tigkeit der Malariaexpedition. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 2.1 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 418\u2013419). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1900)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib37","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912i). Vierter Bericht \u00fcber die T\u00e4tigkeit der Malariaexpedition. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 2.1 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 412\u2013415). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1900)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib38","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912j). Zusammenfassende Darstellung der Ergebnisse der Malariaexpedition. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 2.1 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 422\u2013434). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1900)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib39","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912k). Zweiter Bericht \u00fcber die T\u00e4tigkeit der Malariaexpedition. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 1.2 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 397\u2013403). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1900)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib40","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912l). Die Bek\u00e4mpfung des Typhus. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 1.2 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 296\u2013305). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1902)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib41","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912m). Dritter Bericht \u00fcber das Rhodesische Rotwasser oder \u2018Afrikanische K\u00fcstenfieber\u2019. In idem (Ed.), Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol. 2.2 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 764\u2013773). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1904)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib42","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912n). Vorl\u00e4ufiger Bericht \u00fcber das Rhodesische Rotwasser oder \u2018Afrikanische K\u00fcstenfieber\u2019. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol. 2.2 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 748\u2013757). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1904)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib43","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912o). Zweiter Bericht \u00fcber das Rhodesische Rotwasser oder \u2018Afrikanische K\u00fcstenfieber\u2019. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol. 2.2 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 757\u2013763). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1904)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib44","unstructured":"Koch, R. (1912p). Schlu\u00dfbericht \u00fcber die T\u00e4tigkeit der deutschen Expedition zur Erforschung der Schlafkrankheit. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 2.1 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 534\u2013546). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1907)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib45","unstructured":"Koch, R., & Kleine, F. K. (1912). Die Ergebnisse der Forschungen Robert Kochs \u00fcber K\u00fcstenfieber der Rinder und \u00fcber die Pferdesterbe gelegentlich seiner letzten Expedition nach S\u00fcdafrika. In idem, Gesammelte Werke von Robert Koch, Vol 2.2 (J. Schwalbe, Ed.) (pp. 799\u2013805). Leipzig: G. Thieme. (First published 1905)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib46","series-title":"Typhoid Mary, captive to the public\u2019s health","author":"Leavitt","year":"1996"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib47","series-title":"The colonial disease: A social history of sleeping sickness in northern Zaire, 1900\u20131940","author":"Lyons","year":"1992"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib49","unstructured":"Mendelsohn, J. A. (1996). Cultures of bacteriology: Formation and transformation of a science in France and Germany, 1870\u20131914. Ph.D. thesis, Princeton University."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib50","unstructured":"Mendelsohn, J. A. (1998). From eradication to equilibrium. How epidemics became complex after World War I. In C. Lawrence, & G. Weisz (Eds.), Greater than the parts: Holism in biomedicine, 1920\u20131950 (pp. 303\u2013331). New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib51","series-title":"Robert Koch. Pers\u00f6nlichkeit und Lebenswerk 1843\u20131910","author":"M\u00f6llers","year":"1950"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1093\/shm\/hkn094","article-title":"Paul Ehrlich\u2019s colonial connections: Scientific networks and sleeping sickness drug therapy research, 1900\u20131914","volume":"22","author":"Neill","year":"2009","journal-title":"Social History of Medicine"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1353\/pbm.2006.0044","article-title":"Environment, population, and biology: A short history of modern epidemiology","volume":"49","author":"Parodi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Perspectives in Biology and Medicine"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib54","unstructured":"Porta, M. (Ed.). (2008). A dictionary of epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib55","first-page":"155","article-title":"The trouble with bovine tuberculosis","volume":"59","author":"Rosenkrantz","year":"1985","journal-title":"Bulletin of the History of Medicine"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib56","unstructured":"Ross, R., & Manson, P. (1998). The beast in the mosquito: The correspondence of Ronald Ross and Patrick Manson (W. F. Bynum, & C. Overy, Eds.). Amsterdam: Rodopi."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib57","series-title":"A history of immunology","author":"Silverstein","year":"1989"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1086\/649392","article-title":"Ecologies of complexity: Tropical environments, African trypanosomiasis, and the science of disease control in British colonial Africa, 1900\u20131940","volume":"19","author":"Tilley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Osiris"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib59","series-title":"Epidemics and genocide in Eastern Europe, 1890\u20131945","author":"Weindling","year":"2000"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib60","unstructured":"Worboys, M. (1976). The emergence of tropical medicine: A study in the establishment of a scientific speciality. In G. Lermaine, R. MacLeod, M. Mulkay, & W. Peter (Eds.), Perspectives on the emergence of scientific disciplines, Vol. 4 (pp. 75\u201398). The Hague: Mouton."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1177\/007327539403200103","article-title":"The comparative history of sleeping sickness in East and Central Africa, 1900\u20131914","volume":"32","author":"Worboys","year":"1994","journal-title":"History of Science"}],"container-title":["Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S136984861000035X?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S136984861000035X?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,2]],"date-time":"2023-06-02T15:09:49Z","timestamp":1685718589000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S136984861000035X"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,9]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,9]]}},"alternative-id":["S136984861000035X"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.shpsc.2010.04.012","relation":{},"ISSN":["1369-8486"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1369-8486","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,9]]}}}