{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T17:39:55Z","timestamp":1793727595791,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]],"date-time":"2021-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622505600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]],"date-time":"2021-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622505600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,20]],"date-time":"2021-04-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1618876800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008522","name":"University of Illinois at Chicago","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008522","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Social Science & Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]],"date-time":"2021-04-16T01:30:51Z","timestamp":1618536651000},"page":"113938","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Double Jeopardy: Young adult mental and physical health outcomes following conception via genocidal rape during the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"278","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3255-2155","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Glorieuse","family":"Uwizeye","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8028-942X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zaneta M.","family":"Thayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Holli A.","family":"DeVon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0168-358X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linda L.","family":"McCreary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5829-648X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas W.","family":"McDade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Donatilla","family":"Mukamana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3366-4279","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chang","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Crystal L.","family":"Patil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julienne N.","family":"Rutherford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-017-0895-4","article-title":"Biological embedding of childhood adversity: from physiological mechanisms to clinical implications","volume":"15","author":"Berens","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2011.06.053","article-title":"Nothing can defeat combined hands (abashize hamwe ntakibananira): protective processes and resilience in Rwandan children and families affected by HIV\/AIDS","volume":"73","author":"Betancourt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib3","first-page":"208","article-title":"Counting the countless: rape victimization during the Rwandan genocide","volume":"19","author":"Bijleveld","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Crim. Justice Rev."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.59.1.20","article-title":"Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events?","volume":"59","author":"Bonanno","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0000254","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist for diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders\u2013fifth edition (PCL-5) in veterans","volume":"28","author":"Bovin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychol. Assess."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib47","unstructured":"Buursm, M.P., Rountree, L.M., Dunn, S. L., Burke,, L., Kateera, B., Mukamana, D., Gishoma, D., Uwizeye, G., Sumner, J. A., DeVon, H. A., n.d.. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Young Adults with and without HIV in Rwanda: A Pilot Study. In Review."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib6","series-title":"Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) Manual","author":"Davidson","year":"2015"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.07.016","article-title":"Screening for adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): cautions and suggestions","volume":"85","author":"Finkelhor","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib8","series-title":"Developmental Origins of Health and Disease","author":"Gluckman","year":"2006"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.3917\/tele.042.0117","article-title":"Enfants du viol: questions, silence et transmission","author":"Godard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Le T\u00e9l\u00e9maque"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1002\/2327-6924.12215","article-title":"Health consequences of adverse childhood experiences: a systematic review","volume":"27","author":"Kalmakis","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Assoc. Nurse Practition."},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib11","first-page":"18","article-title":"A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in Nigeria","volume":"5","author":"Kazeem","year":"2015","journal-title":"Res. Humanit. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1017\/S1474746419000101","article-title":"A critique of the adverse childhood experiences framework in epidemiology and public health: uses and misuses","volume":"18","author":"Kelly-Irving","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soc. Pol. Soc."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.2307\/1913643","article-title":"Regression quantiles","volume":"46","author":"Koenker","year":"1978","journal-title":"Econometrica: J. Econ. Soc."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-anthro-091908-164350","article-title":"Developmental origins of adult function and health: evolutionary hypotheses","volume":"38","author":"Kuzawa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Anthropol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1002\/ajhb.20822","article-title":"Epigenetics and the embodiment of race: developmental origins of US racial disparities in cardiovascular health","volume":"21","author":"Kuzawa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Biol.: Off. J. Hum. Biol. Assoc."},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2009.11.021","article-title":"Representativeness of the patient-reported outcomes measurement information system internet panel","volume":"63","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-019-0651-y","article-title":"Modelling resilience in adolescence and adversity: a novel framework to inform research and practice","volume":"9","author":"Malhi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1097\/00005650-199303000-00006","article-title":"The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36): II. psychometric and clinical tests of validity in measuring physical and mental health constructs","author":"McHorney","year":"1993","journal-title":"Med. Care"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib19","first-page":"151","article-title":"Que deviennent les enfants n\u00e9s du viol et leur m\u00e8re vingt ans apr\u00e8s le g\u00e9nocide au Rwanda?","volume":"37","author":"Muhayisa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Th\u00e9r. Fam."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1547-5069.2008.00253.x","article-title":"The lived experience of genocide rape survivors in Rwanda","volume":"40","author":"Mukamana","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Nurs. Scholarsh."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.4161\/epi.21180","article-title":"Methylation changes at NR3C1 in newborns associate with maternal prenatal stress exposure and newborn birth weight","volume":"7","author":"Mulligan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Epigenetics"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-012-0494-9","article-title":"Mental and physical health in Rwanda 14 years after the genocide","volume":"47","author":"Munyandamutsa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Soc. Psychiatr. Psychiatr. Epidemiol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-019-0362-4","article-title":"PTSD prevalence among resident mothers and their offspring in Rwanda 25 years after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi","volume":"7","author":"Mutuyimana","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Psychol."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib25","first-page":"1086","article-title":"The genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda: origins, causes, implementation, consequences, and the post-genocide era","volume":"3","author":"Nikuze","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Dev. Sustain."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib26","series-title":"Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence during the Rwandan Genocide and its Aftermath","author":"Nowrojee","year":"1996"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-anthro-102313-025944","article-title":"Health, risk, and resilience: interdisciplinary concepts and applications","volume":"43","author":"Panter-Brick","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Anthropol."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.3109\/15622975.2013.866693","article-title":"The Tutsi genocide and transgenerational transmission of maternal stress: epigenetics and biology of the HPA axis","volume":"15","author":"Perroud","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Psychiatr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2019.104127","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and associated health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"97","author":"Petruccelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9450.2009.00786.x","article-title":"Early life origins of psychological development and mental health","volume":"50","author":"R\u00e4ikk\u00f6nen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Scand. J. Psychol."},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2010.04.012","article-title":"Relative to the general US population, chronic diseases are associated with poorer health-related quality of life as measured by the patient-reported outcomes measurement information system (PROMIS)","volume":"63","author":"Rothrock","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib32","first-page":"10","article-title":"Transgenerational effects of the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda: a post-traumatic stress disorder symptom domain analysis","volume":"1","author":"Rudahindwa","year":"2020","journal-title":"AAS Open Res."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025714729117","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist\u2014civilian version","volume":"16","author":"Ruggiero","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Trauma Stress"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib34","series-title":"Building Babies: Primate Development in Proximate and Ultimate Perspective","first-page":"27","article-title":"The primate placenta as an agent of developmental and health trajectories across the lifecourse","author":"Rutherford","year":"2012"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721411424740","article-title":"Resilience: a silver lining to experiencing adverse life events?","volume":"20","author":"Seery","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1080\/713687893","article-title":"Rape as genocide: Bangladesh, the former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda","volume":"22","author":"Sharlach","year":"2000","journal-title":"New Polit. Sci."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.21604","article-title":"Maternal prenatal stress and infant DNA methylation: a systematic review","volume":"60","author":"Sosnowski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dev. Psychobiol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25338","DOI":"10.3402\/ejpt.v5.25338","article-title":"Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: interdisciplinary perspectives","volume":"5","author":"Southwick","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychotraumatol."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-23169-w","article-title":"Impact of prenatal stress on offspring glucocorticoid levels: a phylogenetic meta-analysis across 14 vertebrate species","volume":"8","author":"Thayer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/ajhb.22943","article-title":"Early life trauma, post\u2010traumatic stress disorder, and allostatic load in a sample of American Indian adults","volume":"29","author":"Thayer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Biol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.2307\/1907382","article-title":"Estimation of relationships for limited dependent variables","author":"Tobin","year":"1958","journal-title":"Econometrica: J. Econ. Soc."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib46","unstructured":"Uwizeye, G., DeVon, H.A., McCreary, L.L., Patil, C.L, Rutherford, J.N., n.d.. Children born of genocidal rape: What do we know about their experiences and needs? In Review."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2005.02.004","article-title":"Psychoneuroendocrine processes in human pregnancy influence fetal development and health","volume":"30","author":"Wadhwa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.155.9.1163","article-title":"Vulnerability to posttraumatic stress disorder in adult offspring of holocaust survivors","volume":"155","author":"Yehuda","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatr."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1111\/etho.12031","article-title":"Motherhood and resilience among Rwandan genocide\u2010rape survivors","volume":"41","author":"Zraly","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ethos"}],"container-title":["Social Science & Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0277953621002707?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0277953621002707?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,3]],"date-time":"2025-10-03T15:37:59Z","timestamp":1759505879000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0277953621002707"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]},"references-count":45,"alternative-id":["S0277953621002707"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938","relation":{},"ISSN":["0277-9536"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0277-9536","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Double Jeopardy: Young adult mental and physical health outcomes following conception via genocidal rape during the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Social Science & Medicine","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113938","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"113938"}}