{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T20:49:51Z","timestamp":1792183791014,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775606400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000103","name":"National Endowment for the Humanities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RZ5152313"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RZ5152313"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000103","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Foundation for Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04038\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04038\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Foundation for Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BPD\/30439\/2006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BPD\/30439\/2006"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Foundation for Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PTDC\/AFR\/100646\/2008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/AFR\/100646\/2008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Foundation for Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/04413\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/04413\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Social Science &amp; Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T23:25:35Z","timestamp":1775604335000},"page":"119275","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Diamonds and viruses: Reconstructing the epidemiological origins of HIV-1 in Angola's mining frontier"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"400","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2666-883X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Varanda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3903-5265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Abecasis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2004.07.007","article-title":"HIV-1 genetic variants circulation in the North of Angola","volume":"5","author":"Abecasis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol.: J. Mol. Epidemiol. Evol. Genet. Infect. Dis."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1097\/01.aids.0000218543.46963.6d","article-title":"Risk of HIV-1 transmission for parenteral exposure and blood transfusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"20","author":"Baggaley","year":"2006","journal-title":"AIDS (London, England)"},{"issue":"90","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1080\/03056240108704565","article-title":"Garimpeiroworlds: digging, dying & \u2018hunting\u2019 for diamonds in Angola","volume":"28","author":"Boeck","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Afr. Polit. Econ."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib4","article-title":"Serial passage of HIV-2F: a pigtail macaque model for HIV emergence","volume":"14","author":"Bond","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib5","series-title":"HIV Risk and Prevention Estimates","year":"2019"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1080\/01459740.2018.1518981","article-title":"Viral hepatitis and a hospital infrastructure in ruins in Cameroon","volume":"37","author":"Chabrol","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Anthropol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib7","series-title":"Diamonds in the Rough: Corporate Paternalism and African Professionalism on the Mines of Colonial Angola, 1917-1975","author":"Cleveland","year":"2015"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib8","series-title":"Relat\u00f3rio Anual de Sa\u00fade de 1972, Servi\u00e7os de Sa\u00fade da Diamang","author":"David","year":"1972"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0009936","article-title":"High GUD incidence in the early 20 century created a particularly permissive time window for the origin and initial spread of epidemic HIV strains","volume":"5","author":"de Sousa","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib10","series-title":"Nota Info 15\/43. Sec\u00e7\u00e3o de Fornecimentos - Relat\u00f3rios e Notas de Informa\u00e7\u00e3o da Pr\u00f3pria Sec\u00e7\u00e3o - Correspond\u00eancia Conexa: 1\/1\/1943- 31\/4\/44. 84 U40 2o","year":"1943"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib11","series-title":"Servi\u00e7os de Sa\u00fade da Diamang","year":"1957"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib12","series-title":"Servi\u00e7o de Fornecimento - Dados Estatisticos Relativos ao Abastecimento dos Servi\u00e7os de \u00c1frica","year":"1967"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib13","series-title":"Servi\u00e7o de Fornecimento - Dados Estatisticos Relativos ao Abastecimento dos Servi\u00e7os de \u00c1frica","year":"1970"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib14","series-title":"Servi\u00e7o de Fornecimento - Dados Estatisticos Relativos Ao Abastecimento dos Servi\u00e7os de \u00c1frica","year":"1971"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib15","series-title":"Servi\u00e7os de Sa\u00fade da Diamang: Relat\u00f3rio Anual de 1973","year":"1973"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib16","series-title":"Servi\u00e7os de Sa\u00fade da Diamang","year":"1974"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib17","series-title":"The Histories of HIVs: the Emergence of the Multiple Viruses that Caused the AIDS Epidemics","first-page":"58","article-title":"The origins of HIVs and the epidemiology of AIDS","author":"Drucker","year":"2021"},{"issue":"9297","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)06967-7","article-title":"The injection century: massive unsterile injections and the emergence of human pathogens","volume":"358","author":"Drucker","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet (London, England)"},{"issue":"Pt 4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.038638-0","article-title":"Phylogeographical footprint of colonial history in the global dispersal of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 group A","volume":"93","author":"Faria","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"issue":"6205","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1256739","article-title":"The early spread and epidemic ignition of HIV-1 in human populations","volume":"346","author":"Faria","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science (New York, N.Y.)"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007976","article-title":"Distinct rates and patterns of spread of the major HIV-1 subtypes in Central and East Africa","volume":"15","author":"Faria","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/S0955-3886(97)00006-4","article-title":"HIV and blood transfusion in Sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"18","author":"Fleming","year":"1997","journal-title":"Transfus. Sci."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021853713000029","article-title":"Social history, biology, and the emergence of HIV in colonial Africa","volume":"54","author":"Giles-Vernick","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Afr. Hist."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib24","series-title":"The Histories of HIVs the Emergence of the Multiple Viruses that Caused the AIDS Epidemics","article-title":"A social Virus- the emergence of HIV-1 in colonial Kinshasa, 1900\u20131960","author":"Gondola","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib25","series-title":"The River: a Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS","author":"Hooper","year":"1999"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib26","series-title":"The Histories of HIVs- the Emergence of the Multiple Viruses that Caused the AIDS Epidemics","first-page":"179","article-title":"The Cameroonian Puzzle- historical and virological aspects of the emergence of HIV-1 groups O, N, and P","author":"Lachenal","year":"2021"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib27","series-title":"The Routledge Companion to Sexuality and Colonialism","article-title":"Violence, anxieties, and the making of interracial dangers: colonial surveillance and interracial sexuality in the Belgian Congo","author":"Lauro","year":"2021"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005029","article-title":"The two-phase emergence of non pandemic HIV-1 Group O in Cameroon","volume":"11","author":"Leoz","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib29","series-title":"The Histories of HIVs- the Emergence of the Multiple Viruses that Caused the AIDS Epidemics","first-page":"26","article-title":"Explaining the emergence of of HIVS","author":"Marx","year":"2021"},{"issue":"1410","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2001.0867","article-title":"Serial human passage of simian immunodeficiency virus by unsterile injections and the emergence of epidemic human immunodeficiency virus in Africa","volume":"356","author":"Marx","year":"2001","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A B"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib31","series-title":"Cokwe Expansion, 1850-1900","author":"Miller","year":"1969"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12894","article-title":"The burden of hepatitis C virus in Cameroon: spatial epidemiology and historical perspective","volume":"25","author":"Njouom","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib33","series-title":"White Plague, Black Labor: Tuberculosis and the Political Economy of Health and Disease in South Africa","author":"Packard","year":"1989"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000000298","article-title":"Estimating per-act HIV transmission risk: a systematic review","volume":"28","author":"Patel","year":"2014","journal-title":"AIDS (London, England)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2016.08.009","article-title":"On the contribution of Angola to the initial spread of HIV-1. Infection, genetics and evolution","volume":"46","author":"Pineda-Pe\u00f1a","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mol. Epidemiol. Evol. Genet. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib36","series-title":"Modos de Objectifica\u00e7\u00e3o da Domina\u00e7\u00e3o Colonial : O Caso do Museu do Dundo, 1940-1970","author":"Porto","year":"2002"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib37","series-title":"The Origins of AIDS","author":"P\u00e9pin","year":"2011"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1086\/656233","article-title":"Risk factors for hepatitis C virus transmission in colonial Cameroon","volume":"51","author":"P\u00e9pin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-016-1189-6","article-title":"Beyond the cut hunter: a historical epidemiology of HIV beginnings in Central Africa","volume":"13","author":"Rupp","year":"2016","journal-title":"EcoHealth"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib40","series-title":"Alguns Aspectos da Assist\u00eancia M\u00e9dico-Sanit\u00e1ria no Concelho do Chitato (Lunda, Angola)","author":"Santos-David","year":"1965"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib41","first-page":"780","article-title":"A study of seroprevalence of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in six provinces of People's Republic of Angola: clues to the spread of HIV infection","volume":"3","author":"Santos-Ferreira","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib42","series-title":"The History of Blood Transfusion in Sub-Saharan Africa","author":"Schneider","year":"2013"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib43","series-title":"Giving Blood: the Institutional Making of Altruism","first-page":"36","article-title":"History of transfusion in Africa: who gave blood?","author":"Schneider","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib44","series-title":"The Histories of HIVs: the Emergence of the Multiple Viruses that Caused the AIDS Epidemics","author":"Schneider","year":"2021"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.061630","article-title":"Blood transfusions in the early years of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"96","author":"Schneider","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Publ. Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a006841","article-title":"Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic","volume":"1","author":"Sharp","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V91.1.301","article-title":"Epidemiology of anemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected persons: results from the multistate adult and adolescent spectrum of HIV disease surveillance project","volume":"91","author":"Sullivan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Blood"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1089\/apc.1998.12.263","article-title":"Selected vitamins in HIV infection: a review","volume":"12","author":"Tang","year":"1998","journal-title":"AIDS Patient Care STDS"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib49","series-title":"Tinderbox : How the West Sparked the AIDS Epidemic and How the World can Finally Overcome it","author":"Timberg","year":"2012"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib50","series-title":"\u2018A Bem da Na\u00e7\u00e3o\u2019: Medical Science in a Diamond Company in Twentieth-Century Colonial Angola","author":"Varanda","year":"2007"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib51","series-title":"Circula\u00e7\u00e3o do Conhecimento M\u00e9dico. Lisboa: Imprensa de Ci\u00eancias Sociais","first-page":"339","article-title":"A asa protectora de outros- as rela\u00e7\u00f5es transcoloniais do Servi\u00e7o de Sa\u00fade da Diamang","author":"Varanda","year":"2011"},{"issue":"29","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.14195\/2182-7982_29_10","article-title":"Filhos, enteados e apadrinhados: discursos, pol\u00edticas e pr\u00e1ticas dos servi\u00e7os de sa\u00fade da Diamang, Angola","author":"Varanda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Antropologia Portuguesa"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1590\/S0104-59702014000200008","article-title":"[Biomedical health care in Angola and in the Companhia de Diamantes de Angola, circa 1910-1970]","volume":"21","author":"Varanda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hist\u00f3ria, Ci\u00eancias, Sa\u00fade-Manguinhos"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib54","article-title":"Diamang - a dupla face do colonialismo portugu\u00eas","author":"Varanda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Revista Hist\u00f3ria, Jornal de Not\u00edcias"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib55","series-title":"The Histories of HIVs: the Emergence of the Multiple Viruses that Caused the AIDS Epidemics","first-page":"195","article-title":"The emergence and spread of HIV-2 in Ivory Coast and Guinea-Bissau","author":"Varanda","year":"2021"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed8050261","article-title":"It was not the perfect storm: the social history of the HIV-2 virus in Guinea-Bissau","volume":"8","author":"Varanda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib57","series-title":"Curing their ills: Colonial power and African illness","author":"Vaughan","year":"1992"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib58","series-title":"Ernesto de Vilhena, 1955, Aventura e Rotina (Cr\u00edtica de uma Cr\u00edtica)","author":"Vilhena","year":"1955"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib59","series-title":"Contagious: Cultures, Carriers, and the Outbreak Narrative","author":"Wald","year":"2008"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib60","series-title":"The Comforts of Home: Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi","author":"White","year":"1990"},{"issue":"7213","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07390","article-title":"Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960","volume":"455","author":"Worobey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"7627","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275_bib62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1038\/nature19827","article-title":"1970s and \u2018Patient 0\u2019 HIV-1 genomes illuminate early HIV\/AIDS history in North America","volume":"539","author":"Worobey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"}],"container-title":["Social Science &amp; Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0277953626003515?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0277953626003515?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T16:14:34Z","timestamp":1785255274000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0277953626003515"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"references-count":62,"alternative-id":["S0277953626003515"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275","relation":{},"ISSN":["0277-9536"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0277-9536","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Diamonds and viruses: Reconstructing the epidemiological origins of HIV-1 in Angola's mining frontier","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Social Science & Medicine","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119275","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"119275"}}