{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T04:56:29Z","timestamp":1790657789503,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2027,8,11]],"date-time":"2027-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1817942400000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":314,"URL":"http:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/open-access\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-017"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-012"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-004"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Social Science & Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T23:03:07Z","timestamp":1785884587000},"page":"119636","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Structural and social determinants of health shape the impact of neurodegeneration and cerebrovascular pathology on cognitive functioning in black adults"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"406","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3400-589X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yiqi","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexis I.B.","family":"Walker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6514-0502","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Semere","family":"Bekena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9022-2317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramkrishna K.","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8381-8646","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeremy F.","family":"Strain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6705-7621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chia-Ling","family":"Phuah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4588-739X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter R.","family":"Millar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pete","family":"Canfield","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carl V.","family":"Hill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Darrell L.","family":"Hudson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Monique M.","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Essa A.","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathan P.","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kimystian","family":"Harrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7724-1772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Osvaldo J.","family":"Laurido-Soto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3979-0906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jin-Moo","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beau M.","family":"Ances","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Trani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ganesh M.","family":"Babulal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib1","series-title":"2020 Profile of Hispanic Americans Age 65 and Older","year":"2020"},{"issue":"7-8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2010.11.006","article-title":"Counting and multidimensional poverty measurement","volume":"95","author":"Alkire","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Public Econ."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i","DOI":"10.1037\/h0093567","article-title":"An analysis of certain psychological tests used for the evaluation of brain injury","volume":"60","author":"Armitage","year":"1946","journal-title":"Psychol. Monogr."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib4","first-page":"332","article-title":"20\\25 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures","volume":"11","year":"2025","journal-title":"Alzheimer's Dement."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2020.117269","article-title":"Inclusion of ethnoracial populations and diversity remains a key challenge in Alzheimer's disease biofluid-based biomarker studies","volume":"421","author":"Babulal","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"issue":"10077","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30569-X","article-title":"Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions","volume":"389","author":"Bailey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2312","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awaa160","article-title":"MRI signatures of brain age and disease over the lifespan based on a deep brain network and 14 468 individuals worldwide","volume":"143","author":"Bashyam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.3233\/ADR-230155","article-title":"Social determinants of health, risk and resilience against Alzheimer's disease and related dementias: the healthy brain initiative","volume":"8","author":"Besser","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis. Rep."},{"issue":"S2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.091574","article-title":"Brain age gap has a small association with cognition in cognitively normal older adults","volume":"20","author":"Best","year":"2025","journal-title":"Alzheimer's Dement."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1080\/13651501.2020.1746348","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the Montreal cognitive assessment (MoCA) in healthy participants aged 18\u201370","volume":"24","author":"Bruijnen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychiatr. Clin. Pract."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2004.06.018","article-title":"A unified approach for morphometric and functional data analysis in young, old, and demented adults using automated atlas-based head size normalization: reliability and validation against manual measurement of total intracranial volume","volume":"23","author":"Buckner","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1159\/000521288","article-title":"Charlson comorbidity index: a critical review of clinimetric properties","volume":"91","author":"Charlson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychother. Psychosom."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2577","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.122.038561","article-title":"High social risk influence progression of white matter hyperintensities of presumed vascular origin: a prospective study in community-dwelling older adults","volume":"53","author":"Del Brutto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2014.803","article-title":"The preclinical Alzheimer cognitive composite: measuring amyloid-related decline","volume":"71","author":"Donohue","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"issue":"13","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2230","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-022-01445-8","article-title":"Racial discrimination associates with lower cingulate cortex thickness in trauma-exposed black women","volume":"47","author":"Fani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2009.215","article-title":"The clinical use of structural MRI in Alzheimer disease","volume":"6","author":"Frisoni","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.060749","article-title":"\u201cWeathering\u201d and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States","volume":"96","author":"Geronimus","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Publ. Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.060749","article-title":"\"Weathering\" and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States","volume":"96","author":"Geronimus","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Publ. Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-032315-021556","article-title":"Visible and invisible trends in black men's health: pitfalls and promises for addressing racial, ethnic, and gender inequities in health","volume":"37","author":"Gilbert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Publ. Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-008-9064-z","article-title":"Lifecourse social conditions and racial and ethnic patterns of cognitive aging","volume":"18","author":"Glymour","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1177\/0891988714524630","article-title":"Validity of the Montreal cognitive assessment as a screen for mild cognitive impairment and dementia in African Americans","volume":"27","author":"Goldstein","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. Psychiatr. Neurol."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.121.032610","article-title":"Risk factors, lifestyle behaviors, and vascular brain health","volume":"53","author":"Gottesman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.38.6.900","article-title":"Screening for dementia by memory testing","volume":"38","author":"Grober","year":"1988","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.18865\/ed.25.3.245","article-title":"The national institute on aging health disparities research framework","volume":"25","author":"Hill","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ethn. Dis."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1080\/08870446.2014.966104","article-title":"Vigilance in the discrimination-stress model for black Americans","volume":"30","author":"Himmelstein","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.11.007","article-title":"White matter hyperintensities and risks of cognitive impairment and dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 36 prospective studies","volume":"120","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2011.2138152","article-title":"Robust brain extraction across datasets and comparison with publicly available methods","volume":"30","author":"Iglesias","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imag."},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7350","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.14166","article-title":"Overview of ADNI MRI","volume":"20","author":"Jack","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alzheimer's Dement."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01315113","article-title":"John Henryism and blood pressure differences among black men","volume":"6","author":"James","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Behav. Med."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1177\/15579883241278846","article-title":"How masculinity impedes African American men from seeking mental health treatment","volume":"18","author":"Johnson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Mens Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib31","article-title":"T\u2010MoCA: a valid phone screen for cognitive impairment in diverse community samples","volume":"13","author":"Katz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alzheimer's Dement.: Diagnosis, Assessment & Disease Monitoring"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1017\/S1041610210000839","article-title":"Effects of educational background on verbal fluency task performance in older adults with Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment","volume":"22","author":"Kawano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. Psychogeriatr."},{"issue":"14","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11144059","article-title":"Regression-based normative data for the Montreal cognitive assessment (MoCA) and its memory index score (MoCA-MIS) for individuals aged 18-91","volume":"11","author":"Kessels","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/30.4.668","article-title":"Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century: an ecosocial perspective","volume":"30","author":"Krieger","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib35","article-title":"Associations of place\u2010based social determinants of health with biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias","volume":"1","author":"Krishnamurthy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Alzheimer's Dement.: Behav. Socioecon. Aging"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1177\/08919887251366698","article-title":"A scoping review of clinical utility from the Montreal cognitive assessment memory index score","volume":"39","author":"Kronenberger","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. Psychiatr. Neurol."},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2556","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2019.2905770","article-title":"Standardized assessment of automatic segmentation of white matter hyperintensities and results of the WMH segmentation challenge","volume":"38","author":"Kuijf","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imag."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib38","series-title":"MPI: Computation of Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)_ R Package, Version 0.1.0","author":"Kukiattikun","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2018.00317","article-title":"A nonlinear simulation framework supports adjusting for age when analyzing BrainAGE","volume":"10","author":"Le","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e50","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbx015","article-title":"Neighborhood disadvantage and biological aging: using marginal structural models to assess the link between neighborhood census variables and epigenetic aging","volume":"74","author":"Lei","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Gerontol.: Series B."},{"issue":"8","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.12509","article-title":"Black and white individuals differ in dementia prevalence, risk factors, and symptomatic presentation","volume":"18","author":"Lennon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Alzheimer's Dement."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.86.4.471","article-title":"Understanding sociodemographic differences in health--the role of fundamental social causes","volume":"86","author":"Link","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Publ. Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e299","DOI":"10.5114\/pjr\/203781","article-title":"Quantitative brain volumetry in neurological disorders: from disease mechanisms to software solutions","volume":"90","author":"Marek","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pol. J. Radiol."},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1037\/neu0000949","article-title":"Pick a PACC: comparing domain-specific and general cognitive composites in Alzheimer disease research","volume":"38","author":"McKay","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0000000000001113","article-title":"The relationship of John Henryism with cognitive function and decline in older black adults","volume":"84","author":"McSorley","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1097\/01.PSY.0000107909.74904.3D","article-title":"Low educational attainment, John Henryism, and cardiovascular reactivity to and recovery from personally relevant stress","volume":"66","author":"Merritt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib47","first-page":"773","article-title":"Optimal cutoffs for the Montreal cognitive assessment vary by race and ethnicity","volume":"10","author":"Milani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alzheimer's Dement."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-023-00688-3","article-title":"Advanced structural brain aging in preclinical autosomal dominant Alzheimer disease","volume":"18","author":"Millar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e244","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(22)00373-3","article-title":"Effects of clinical, comorbid, and social determinants of health on brain ageing in people with and without HIV: a retrospective case-control study","volume":"10","author":"Petersen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet HIV"},{"issue":"23","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2535","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000201186","article-title":"Association of data-driven white matter hyperintensity spatial signatures with distinct cerebral small vessel disease etiologies","volume":"99","author":"Phuah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0218462","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic differences in multimorbidity development and chronic disease accumulation for middle-aged adults","volume":"14","author":"Quinones","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib52","series-title":"A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing","author":"R Core Team","year":"2021"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1590\/S1980-57642008DN10100007","article-title":"Analysis of brief language tests in the detection of cognitive decline and dementia","volume":"1","author":"Radanovic","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dement Neuropsychol."},{"issue":"36","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000034997","article-title":"MRI measurements of brain hippocampus volume in relation to mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"102","author":"Rao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0000000000000042","article-title":"Normative data for 8 neuropsychological tests in older blacks and whites from the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study","volume":"29","author":"Schneider","year":"2015","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord."},{"issue":"11","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0073377","article-title":"Quantitative analysis of PiB-PET with FreeSurfer ROIs","volume":"8","author":"Su","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2424","DOI":"10.1002\/jcop.22677","article-title":"Gender differences in African Americans' reactions to and coping with discrimination: results from the national study of American life","volume":"49","author":"Sullivan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Community Psychol."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.media.2021.102184","article-title":"Triplanar ensemble U-Net model for white matter hyperintensities segmentation on MR images","volume":"73","author":"Sundaresan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Image Anal."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib59","first-page":"1","article-title":"Association between structural and social determinants of health and cognitive functioning among African Americans: the ARCHES Cohort","author":"Trani","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Racial Ethn. Health Disparities"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib60","first-page":"659","article-title":"Social health is associated with structural brain changes in older adults: the rotterdam study","volume":"7","author":"van der Velpen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.69995","article-title":"Individual variations in \u2018brain age\u2019relate to early-life factors more than to longitudinal brain change","volume":"10","author":"Vidal-Pineiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"eLife"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib62","article-title":"Recruiting a prospective community cohort to study Alzheimer's disease and structural and social determinants of health among adults racialized as black: the ARCHES cohort","volume":"10","author":"Walker","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alzheimer's Dement.: Transl. Res. Clin. Interv."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.114.001140","article-title":"What are white matter hyperintensities made of? Relevance to vascular cognitive impairment","volume":"4","author":"Wardlaw","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.70133","article-title":"Cross-sectional comparison of structural MRI markers of impairment in a diverse cohort of older adults","volume":"46","author":"Wisch","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2025.106117","article-title":"Social determinants of health, brain structure, and immune-metabolic mechanisms in depression: a multi-omic analysis from the UK biobank","volume":"130","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2018.10.002","article-title":"Inflammatory mechanisms underlying the effects of everyday discrimination on age-related memory decline","volume":"75","author":"Zahodne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205012666150530203214","article-title":"Structural MRI predictors of late-life cognition differ across African Americans, Hispanics, and whites","volume":"12","author":"Zahodne","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Alzheimer Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2022.114789","article-title":"Longitudinal associations between racial discrimination and hippocampal and white matter hyperintensity volumes among older black adults","volume":"316","author":"Zahodne","year":"2023","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636_bib69","article-title":"The association between structural and social determinants of health and mood disorder symptoms among black adults in the greater St. Louis metropolitan area","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Racial Ethn. Health Dispar."}],"container-title":["Social Science & Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0277953626007136?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0277953626007136?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T04:17:52Z","timestamp":1790655472000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0277953626007136"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"references-count":69,"alternative-id":["S0277953626007136"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636","relation":{},"ISSN":["0277-9536"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0277-9536","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Structural and social determinants of health shape the impact of neurodegeneration and cerebrovascular pathology on cognitive functioning in black adults","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Social Science & Medicine","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2026.119636","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"119636"}}