{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T04:37:10Z","timestamp":1792816630170,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,1]],"date-time":"2024-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714521600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,1]],"date-time":"2024-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714521600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]],"date-time":"2024-03-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711065600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001663","name":"Volkswagen Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012688","name":"University of Rostock","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012688","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Vision Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]],"date-time":"2024-03-25T14:02:42Z","timestamp":1711375362000},"page":"108389","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Aerial single target acuity of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) for stationary and moving targets of varying contrast"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"218","author":[{"given":"Laura-Marie","family":"Sandow","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Frederike D.","family":"Hanke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1974.sp010649","article-title":"Behavioural contrast sensitivity of the cat in various visual meridians","volume":"241","author":"Bisti","year":"1974","journal-title":"Journal of Physiology"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1163\/156856897X00357","article-title":"The psychophysics toolbox","volume":"10","author":"Brainard","year":"1997","journal-title":"Spatial Vision"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(82)90196-1","article-title":"Contrast sensitivity at high velocities","volume":"22","author":"Burr","year":"1982","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"issue":"3\/4","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0020","first-page":"197","article-title":"Das visuelle Leistungsverm\u00f6gen der Seeb\u00e4ren (Arctocephalus pusillus und Arctocephalus australis)","volume":"219","author":"Busch","year":"1987","journal-title":"Zoologischer Anzeiger"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0025","first-page":"1586","article-title":"Visual acuity in ray-finned fishes correlates with eye size and habitat","volume":"220","author":"Caves","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Biology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2019.04.005","article-title":"Single target acuity is not higher than grating acuity in a bird, the budgerigar","volume":"160","author":"Chaib","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1242\/bio.058796","article-title":"Visual acuity of budgerigars for moving targets","volume":"10","author":"Chaib","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biology Open"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-3768.1979.tb00517.x","article-title":"Age variations in normal human contrast sensitivity","volume":"57","author":"Derefeldt","year":"1979","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmologica"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(74)90118-7","article-title":"Psychophysical studies of monkey vision - III. Spatial luminance contrast sensitivity tests of macaque and human observers","volume":"14","author":"De Valois","year":"1974","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0050","first-page":"206","article-title":"Short articles and notes - chance orders of alternating stimuli. Visual discrimination Experiments","volume":"42","author":"Gellermann","year":"1933","journal-title":"Journal of Genetic Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0055","series-title":"Perception of the visual world","author":"Gibson","year":"1950"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8295.1958.tb00656.x","article-title":"Visually controlled locomotion and visual orientation in animals","volume":"49","author":"Gibson","year":"1958","journal-title":"British Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ps.14.020163.000333","article-title":"Perceptual learning","volume":"14","author":"Gibson","year":"1963","journal-title":"Annual Revision in Psychology"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e103555","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0103555","article-title":"Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) can perceive optic flow under water","volume":"9","author":"Gl\u00e4ser","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2014.07.007","article-title":"Stimulus motion improves spatial contrast sensitivity in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus)","volume":"102","author":"Haller","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"issue":"6\u20137","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2005.09.019","article-title":"Corneal topography, refractive state, and accommodation in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina)","volume":"46","author":"Hanke","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2007.11.012","article-title":"Optokinetic nystagmus in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina)","volume":"48","author":"Hanke","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1007\/s00359-009-0439-2","article-title":"Aerial visual acuity in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) as a function of luminance","volume":"195","author":"Hanke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Comparative Physiology A"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s00359-010-0600-y","article-title":"Contrast sensitivity in a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina)","volume":"197","author":"Hanke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Comparative Physiology A"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0100","series-title":"Ethology and Behavioral Ecology of Phocids","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-88923-4_2","article-title":"Phocid sensory systems and cognition","author":"Hanke","year":"2022"},{"issue":"17","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2804","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2006.02.004","article-title":"Visual fields and eye movements in a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina)","volume":"46","author":"Hanke","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1085\/jgp.22.5.593","article-title":"The visibility of single lines at various illuminations and the retinal basis of visual resolution","volume":"22","author":"Hecht","year":"1939","journal-title":"Journal of General Physiology"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.37.000500","article-title":"The visibility of lines and squares at high brightnesses","volume":"37","author":"Hecht","year":"1947","journal-title":"Journal of the Optical Society of America"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-016-1020-3","article-title":"Harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) are able to time precisely","volume":"19","author":"Heinrich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Animal Cognition"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-020-01390-3","article-title":"Visual timing abilities of a harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) and a South African fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) for sub- and supra-second time intervals","volume":"23","author":"Heinrich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Animal Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0130","first-page":"16","article-title":"\u00dcber die Grenzen der Sehsch\u00e4rfe. Berichte der mathematisch-physikalischen Classe der k\u00f6niglich s\u00e4chsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig","volume":"1899","author":"Hering","year":"1899","journal-title":"Naturwissenschaftlicher Teil"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(70)90035-0","article-title":"Visual discrimination in the harbour seal (Phoca vitulina), above and below water","volume":"10","author":"Jamieson","year":"1970","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.69.001340","article-title":"Motion and vision. II. Stabilized spatio-temporal threshold surface","volume":"69","author":"Kelly","year":"1979","journal-title":"Journal of the Optical Society of America"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0145","first-page":"1","article-title":"What's new in Psychtoolbox-3","volume":"36","author":"Kleiner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0150","series-title":"Animal eyes","author":"Land","year":"2012"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1167\/11.7.2","article-title":"The spatial tuning of achromatic and chromatic vision in budgerigars","volume":"11","author":"Lind","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Vision"},{"issue":"4853","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3283936","article-title":"Segregation of form, color, movement, and depth: Anatomy, physiology, and perception","volume":"240","author":"Livingstone","year":"1988","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/w13070938","article-title":"Distance estimation in reproduction tasks in a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina)","volume":"13","author":"Maa\u00df","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"jeb243870","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.243870","article-title":"How harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) encode goals relative to landmarks","volume":"225","author":"Maa\u00df","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Biology"},{"issue":"24","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"jeb244544","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.244544","article-title":"A harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) can learn geometric relations between landmarks","volume":"225","author":"Maa\u00df","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Biology"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-7692.2005.tb01257.x","article-title":"How a harbour seal sees the night sky","volume":"21","author":"Mauck","year":"2005","journal-title":"Marine Mammal Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-008-0156-1","article-title":"Harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) can steer by the stars","volume":"11","author":"Mauck","year":"2008","journal-title":"Animal Cognition"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1017\/S0952523807070307","article-title":"Acuity and contrast sensitivity of the bluegill sunfish and how they change during op-tic nerve regeneration","volume":"24","author":"Northmore","year":"2007","journal-title":"Visual Neuroscience"},{"issue":"1636","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20130043","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2013.0043","article-title":"Contrast sensitivity and the detection of moving patterns and features","volume":"369","author":"O'Carroll","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.71.10.791","article-title":"Contrast sensitivity, acuity, and the perception of 'real-world' targets","volume":"71","author":"Owsley","year":"1987","journal-title":"British Journal of Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1163\/156856897X00366","article-title":"The VideoToolbox software for visual psychophysics: Transforming numbers into movies","volume":"10","author":"Pelli","year":"1997","journal-title":"Spatial Vision"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.56.001141","article-title":"Spatial and temporal contrast-sensitivity functions of the visual system","volume":"56","author":"Robson","year":"1966","journal-title":"Journal of the Optical Society of America"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2007.10.012","article-title":"Brightness discrimination in the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina)","volume":"48","author":"Scholtyssek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1038\/226563a0","article-title":"Visual acuity of the harbour seal and the Stellar sea lion under water","volume":"226","author":"Schusterman","year":"1970","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1971.tb13088.x","article-title":"Aerial and underwater visual acuity in the California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) as a function of luminance","volume":"188","author":"Schusterman","year":"1971","journal-title":"Annals of the New York Academy of Science"},{"issue":"20","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"jeb243068","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.243068","article-title":"Single target acuity in the common sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus)","volume":"224","author":"Spratte","year":"2021","journal-title":"The Journal of Experimental Biology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2005.08.015","article-title":"Effect of water turbidity on the visual acuity of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina)","volume":"46","author":"Weiffen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/2193-1801-3-688","article-title":"Sensitivity of a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) to coherent visual motion in random dot displays","volume":"3","author":"Weiffen","year":"2014","journal-title":"SpringerPlus"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(77)90069-4","article-title":"Spatial configurations for visual hyperacuity","volume":"17","author":"Westheimer","year":"1977","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389_b0250","first-page":"43","article-title":"The role of contrast sensitivity charts and contrast letter charts in clinical practice","volume":"78","author":"Woods","year":"1994","journal-title":"Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2026.108797","type":"erratum","label":"Erratum","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772755200000}},{"DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2026.108797","type":"erratum","label":"Erratum","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000}},{"DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2026.108920","type":"erratum","label":"Erratum","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792800000000}}],"container-title":["Vision Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0042698924000336?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0042698924000336?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,7]],"date-time":"2026-06-07T20:31:16Z","timestamp":1780864276000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0042698924000336"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]},"references-count":50,"alternative-id":["S0042698924000336"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389","relation":{},"ISSN":["0042-6989"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0042-6989","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Aerial single target acuity of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) for stationary and moving targets of varying contrast","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Vision Research","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108389","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"108389"}}