{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T20:51:49Z","timestamp":1789678309789,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764547200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764547200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,4]],"date-time":"2025-08-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754265600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100020171","name":"UK Government Foreign Commonwealth & Development Office","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100020171","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004425","name":"Asian Development Bank","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004425","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["World Development"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,12]],"date-time":"2025-08-12T19:53:02Z","timestamp":1755028382000},"page":"107140","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"special_numbering":"C","title":["Understanding education policy preferences: Survey experiments with policymakers in 35 developing countries"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"196","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1513-934X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lee","family":"Crawfurd","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Susannah","family":"Hares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Minardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Justin","family":"Sandefur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03323-7","article-title":"Measuring human capital using global learning data","volume":"592","author":"Angrist","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1111\/gove.12104","article-title":"When politics matters: The impact of politicians\u2019 and bureaucrats\u2019 preferences on salient and nonsalient policy areas: When politics matters","volume":"28","author":"Baekgaard","year":"2015","journal-title":"Governance: An International Journal of Policy and Administration"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1093\/wber\/lhy033","article-title":"Biased policy professionals","volume":"33","author":"Banuri","year":"2019","journal-title":"The World Bank Economic Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b4","series-title":"Global education program","author":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","year":"2021"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1257\/jel.48.1.3","article-title":"Civil war","volume":"48","author":"Blattman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Literature"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.31.4.185","article-title":"Enrollment without learning: Teacher effort, knowledge, and skill in primary schools in africa","volume":"31","author":"Bold","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Perspectives"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/isq\/sqab035","article-title":"Why does aid not target the poorest?","author":"Briggs","year":"2021","journal-title":"International Studies Quarterly"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1086\/690951","article-title":"Curriculum and ideology","volume":"125","author":"Cantoni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b9","series-title":"Scripted lesson plans and improving early-grade reading: Experimental evidence from South Africa","author":"Cilliers","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b10","series-title":"Good government: the relevance of political science","article-title":"Public administration around the world","author":"Dahlstr\u00f6m","year":"2012"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3765","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.20151138","article-title":"Quality and accountability in health care delivery: Audit-study evidence from primary care in India","volume":"106","author":"Das","year":"2016","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b12","series-title":"DFID education policy: Get children learning","first-page":"46","author":"Department for International Development","year":"2018"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b13","series-title":"\u00c9ducation et sociologie","author":"Durkheim","year":"1922"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b14","series-title":"Self-theories: their role in motivation, personality, and development","author":"Dweck","year":"2000"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-polisci-031710-103314","article-title":"Formal models of bureaucracy","volume":"15","author":"Gailmard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annual Review of Political Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b16","series-title":"Cost-effective approaches to improve global learning levels","author":"Global Education Evidence Advisory Panel","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2019.104745","article-title":"Oiling the bureaucracy? Political spending, bureaucrats and the resource curse","volume":"127","author":"Harris","year":"2020","journal-title":"World Development"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.20190830","article-title":"How research affects policy: Experimental evidence from 2,150 Brazilian municipalities","author":"Hjort","year":"2021","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b19","first-page":"1","article-title":"Does conjoint analysis mitigate social desirability bias?","author":"Horiuchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Political Analysis"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b20","first-page":"226","article-title":"Can online off-the-shelf lessons improve student outcomes? Evidence from a field experiment","volume":"10","author":"Jackson","year":"2018","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Economic Policy"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1162\/qjec.2010.125.2.515","article-title":"The (perceived) returns to education and the demand for schooling","volume":"125","author":"Jensen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2021.105726","article-title":"Bureaucrat time-use: Evidence from a survey experiment","volume":"152","author":"Kalaj","year":"2022","journal-title":"World Development"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b23","first-page":"26","article-title":"Experiments and surveys on political elites","author":"Kertzer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annual Review of Political Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2024.106815","article-title":"What do aid recipients want? Public attitudes toward foreign aid in developing countries","volume":"186","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"World Development"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b25","series-title":"How does the world bank influence the development policy priorities of low-income and lower-middle income countries?","author":"Knack","year":"2020"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X20912798","article-title":"Interpreting effect sizes of education interventions","volume":"49","author":"Kraft","year":"2020","journal-title":"Educational Researcher"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003055421000800","article-title":"Do policy makers listen to experts? Evidence from a national survey of local and state policy makers","volume":"116","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"American Political Science Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1017\/pan.2019.30","article-title":"Measuring subgroup preferences in conjoint experiments","volume":"28","author":"Leeper","year":"2020","journal-title":"Political Analysis"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1111\/gove.12257","article-title":"Bureaucratic expertise, overconfidence, and policy choice","volume":"30","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Governance-an International Journal of Policy and Administration"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1080\/19439342.2012.759257","article-title":"What is the impact of a policy brief? Results of an experiment in research dissemination","volume":"5","author":"Masset","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Development Effectiveness"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b31","series-title":"Conditional logit analysis of qualitative choice behavior","author":"McFadden","year":"1973"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jval.2012.04.001","article-title":"Decision-making criteria among national policymakers in five countries: A discrete choice experiment eliciting relative preferences for equity and efficiency","volume":"15","author":"Mirelman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Value in Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.2307\/2110997","article-title":"The new economics of organization","volume":"28","author":"Moe","year":"1984","journal-title":"American Journal of Political Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b34","series-title":"Comparable estimates of returns to schooling around the world","first-page":"1","author":"Montenegro","year":"2014"},{"issue":"6537","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf6655","article-title":"India\u2019s new national education policy: Evidence and challenges","volume":"372","author":"Muralidharan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science (New York, N.Y.)"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b36","series-title":"Evidence-based decisions and education policymakers","author":"Nakajima","year":"2021"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026699","article-title":"Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments","volume":"67","author":"Nisbett","year":"2012","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b38","series-title":"Development co-operation Report 2017: data for development","author":"OECD","year":"2017"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003055420000647","article-title":"The non-democratic roots of mass education: Evidence from 200 years","volume":"115","author":"Paglayan","year":"2021","journal-title":"American Political Science Review"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2018.01.018","article-title":"Identifying the essential ingredients to literacy and numeracy improvement: Teacher professional development and coaching, student textbooks, and structured teachers\u2019 guides","volume":"106","author":"Piper","year":"2018","journal-title":"World Development"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b41","series-title":"Beneficiary preferences: findings from Ghana and Kenya","first-page":"30","author":"Redfern","year":"2019"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1017\/jea.2018.17","article-title":"Agents, principals, something in between? Bureaucrats and policy control in Thailand","volume":"18","author":"Ricks","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of East Asian Studies"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b43","first-page":"12","article-title":"How much does education improve intelligence? A meta-analysis","author":"Ritchie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b44","article-title":"Hierarchy and information","volume":"219","author":"Rogger","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Public Economics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b45","article-title":"Teacher beliefs: Why they matter and what they are","author":"Sabarwal","year":"2021","journal-title":"The World Bank Research Observer"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1093\/wbro\/lkz006","article-title":"Supporting policy reform from the outside","volume":"35","author":"Smets","year":"2019","journal-title":"The World Bank Research Observer"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b47","series-title":"What do Tanzanian parents want from primary schools and what can be done about it?","first-page":"30","author":"Solomon","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b48","series-title":"The learning generation: Investing in education for a changing world","author":"The International Commission on Financing Global Education Opportunity","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2024.105096","article-title":"Understanding and improving policymakers\u2019 sensitivity to program impact","volume":"234","author":"Toma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Public Economics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b50","series-title":"USAid education policy","author":"United States Agency for International Development","year":"2018"},{"issue":"103121","key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b51","article-title":"How do policymakers update their beliefs?","volume":"165","author":"Vivalt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Development Economics"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140_b52","first-page":"36","article-title":"Local knowledge, formal evidence, and policy decisions","author":"Vivalt","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Development Economics"}],"container-title":["World Development"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0305750X25002256?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0305750X25002256?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T11:42:26Z","timestamp":1772797346000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0305750X25002256"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"references-count":52,"alternative-id":["S0305750X25002256"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140","relation":{},"ISSN":["0305-750X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0305-750X","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Understanding education policy preferences: Survey experiments with policymakers in 35 developing countries","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"World Development","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.worlddev.2025.107140","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"107140"}}