{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T09:02:51Z","timestamp":1776243771373,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775001600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775001600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768348800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004826","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Beijing Municipality","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IS23096"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IS23096"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022YFC2502800"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFC2502800"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001818","name":"Research to Prevent Blindness","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001818","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100021066","name":"Gates Ventures","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100021066","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["82388101"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82388101"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["clinicalkey.com","clinicalkey.com.au","clinicalkey.es","clinicalkey.fr","clinicalkey.jp","ophthalmologyscience.org","elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Ophthalmology Science"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T16:39:41Z","timestamp":1768927181000},"page":"101079","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Evolution of Oculomics: From Naked Eye Observations to Artificial Intelligence over 100 Years"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7307-6750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anushka","family":"Irodi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaofei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ya Xing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yih Chung","family":"Tham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cecilia S.","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carol Y.","family":"Cheung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhuoting","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrzej","family":"Grzybowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tien Yin","family":"Wong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.9.2.6","article-title":"Insights into systemic disease through retinal imaging-based oculomics","volume":"9","author":"Wagner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl Vis Sci Technol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib2","first-page":"22","article-title":"\u00dcber einen Fall von angeborener gr\u00fcnlicher Verf\u00e4rbung der Cornea","volume":"40","author":"Kayser","year":"1902","journal-title":"Klin Mbl Augenheilk"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib3","first-page":"489","article-title":"Zwei weitere Falle von grunlicher Verfarbung der Kornea","volume":"41","author":"Fleischer","year":"1903","journal-title":"Klin Monatsbl Augenheilk"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-193903000-00006","article-title":"Some different types of essential hypertension","volume":"197","author":"Keith","year":"1939","journal-title":"The Am J Med Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib5","series-title":"Guy\u2019s Hospital Reports","article-title":"Tabular view of the morbid appearances in 100 cases connected with albuminous urine","author":"Bright","year":"1836"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib6","series-title":"The eye: A Natural History","author":"Ings","year":"2008"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib7","series-title":"Commentatio de Examine Physiologico Organi Visus et Systematis Cutanei [Contributions to Physiological Research of Sight and Skin System]","author":"Purkinje","year":"1823"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib8","series-title":"Anatomische Beschreibung des Menschlichen Augapfels","author":"Br\u00fccke","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib9","series-title":"Report on the Ophthalmoscope","author":"Jones","year":"1854"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1902.62480090001001","article-title":"The history of the invention and of the development of the ophthalmoscope","volume":"38","author":"Friedenwald","year":"1902","journal-title":"J Am Med Assoc"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.120.2.194","article-title":"The Ophthalmoscope in the Lifetime of Hermann von Helmholtz","volume":"120","author":"Keeler","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2023.08.023","article-title":"Comment on: an eye on the brain: adding insight to injury","volume":"261","author":"Grzybowski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02800420","article-title":"Ueber netzhautaffectionen bei wundfiebern","volume":"1","author":"Roth","year":"1872","journal-title":"Deutsche Z f\u00fcr Chirurgie"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Zur kenntnis der keratoconjunctivitis sicca: (keratitis filiformis bei hypofunktion der tr\u00e4nendr\u00fcsen)","volume":"11","author":"Sj\u00f6gren","year":"1933","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib16","series-title":"Uber rezidiverende aphthose durch ein virus verursachte Geschwure am Mund, am Auge und an den Genitalien","author":"Behcet","year":"1937"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib17","first-page":"541","article-title":"A case of sickle cell anemia with associated subarachnoid hemorrhage","volume":"11","author":"Cook","year":"1930","journal-title":"J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.1937.01980050075009","article-title":"Sickle cell anemia: changes in the vessels and in the bones","volume":"54","author":"HARDEN","year":"1937","journal-title":"Am J Dis Child"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1097\/00007611-194410000-00003","article-title":"Infectious mononucleosis in the negro. Report of three cases with one complicated by sickle cell anemia","volume":"37","author":"Ray","year":"1944","journal-title":"South MJ"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib20","first-page":"1186","article-title":"Sickle cell anemia; the structural defect of the erythrocytes in sicklemia","volume":"26","author":"Kelly","year":"1947","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib21","first-page":"194","article-title":"Successful diathermy treatment in a case of recurring retinal hemorrhages and retinitis proliferans","volume":"45","author":"Verhoeff","year":"1947","journal-title":"Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib22","series-title":"Beitr zur pathol des Auges","first-page":"33","author":"Jaeger","year":"1856"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1076\/soph.16.1.2.4220","article-title":"Diabetic retinopathy \u2013 an historical review","volume":"16","author":"Wolfensberger","year":"2001","journal-title":"Semin Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib24","first-page":"230","article-title":"Ueber die mit Diabetes mellitus vorkommenden Sehst\u00f6rungen","volume":"4","author":"Von Graefe","year":"1858","journal-title":"Dies Arch"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib25","author":"Nettleship"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib26","first-page":"124","article-title":"Ophthalmoscopic evidence of (1) arterial changes associated with chronic renal disease, and (2) of increased arterial tension","volume":"12","author":"Gunn","year":"1892","journal-title":"Trans Ophthalmological Soc UK"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib27","first-page":"356","article-title":"Ophthalmoscopic evidence of general arterial disease","volume":"18","author":"MR","year":"1898","journal-title":"Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(89)92384-2","article-title":"Usefulness of ophthalmoscopy in mild to moderate hypertension","volume":"1","author":"Dimmitt","year":"1989","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2310","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra032865","article-title":"Hypertensive retinopathy","volume":"351","author":"Wong","year":"2004","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib30","series-title":"Manual of hypertension","first-page":"283","article-title":"Special measures of end-organ damage","author":"Kario","year":"2002"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib31","first-page":"51","article-title":"A modification of the ophthalmoscope","volume":"1","author":"Noyes","year":"1869","journal-title":"Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib32","first-page":"365","article-title":"On a new instrument for photographing the fundus oculi","volume":"3","author":"Rosebrugh","year":"1864","journal-title":"Buffalo Med Surg J"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib33","first-page":"340","article-title":"On photographing the eye of the living human retina","volume":"23","author":"Jackman","year":"1886","journal-title":"Phila Photogr"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib34","first-page":"568","article-title":"Photography of the interior of the eye","volume":"4","author":"Howe","year":"1887","journal-title":"Trans Am Ophthalmological Soc"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1953.00920020445008","article-title":"Fundus photographs in color using a high-speed flash tube in the Zeiss retinal camera","volume":"49","author":"Ogle","year":"1953","journal-title":"AMA Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.24.1.82","article-title":"A method of photographing fluorescence in circulating blood in the human retina","volume":"24","author":"Novotny","year":"1961","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2991","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.19.002991","article-title":"Flying spot TV ophthalmoscope","volume":"19","author":"Webb","year":"1980","journal-title":"Appl Opt"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib38","series-title":"High Resolution Imaging in Microscopy and Ophthalmology: New Frontiers in Biomedical Optics","first-page":"35","article-title":"Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy (SLO)","author":"Fischer","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.1979.03630470051017","article-title":"Retinal arteriolar changes as an indicator of coronary artery disease","volume":"139","author":"Michelson","year":"1979","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2005.05.070","article-title":"Relation of atherosclerotic changes in retinal arteries to the extent of coronary artery disease","volume":"96","author":"Tedeschi-Reiner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am J Cardiol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198608213150804","article-title":"Optic-nerve degeneration in Alzheimer's disease","volume":"315","author":"Hinton","year":"1986","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1991.01080020045040","article-title":"Optic nerve head and nerve fiber layer in Alzheimer's disease","volume":"109","author":"Tsai","year":"1991","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410330305","article-title":"Retinal ganglion cells in Alzheimer's disease and aging","volume":"33","author":"Curcio","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.6.3.263","article-title":"Pathological studies on the intracerebral and retinal arteries in cerebrovascular and noncerebrovascular diseases","volume":"6","author":"Goto","year":"1975","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.18.5.292","article-title":"Diameters of the retinal vessels in diabetic and normal subjects","volume":"18","author":"Skovborg","year":"1969","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1097\/01.hjh.0000222747.59949.05","article-title":"Assessment of retinal vascular changes in hypertension: new perspectives","volume":"24","author":"Muiesan","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Hypertens"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib47","author":"Dobbin"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1464-5491.2003.01002.x","article-title":"Evaluation of a new non-mydriatic digital camera for detection of diabetic retinopathy","volume":"20","author":"Massin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabet Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9394(02)01522-2","article-title":"The sensitivity and specificity of single-field nonmydriatic monochromatic digital fundus photography with remote image interpretation for diabetic retinopathy screening: a comparison with ophthalmoscopy and standardized mydriatic color photography","volume":"134","author":"Lin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2388","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.21.2388","article-title":"Quantitative retinal venular caliber and risk of cardiovascular disease in older persons: the cardiovascular health study","volume":"166","author":"Wong","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)06253-5","article-title":"Retinal microvascular abnormalities and incident stroke: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study","volume":"358","author":"Wong","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2386","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0b013e3283310f7e","article-title":"Retinal vessel diameters and risk of hypertension: the multiethnic study of atherosclerosis","volume":"27","author":"Kawasaki","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Hypertens"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1001\/archophthalmol.2012.560","article-title":"Relationship of blood pressure and other factors to serial retinal arteriolar diameter measurements over time: the beaver dam eye Study","volume":"130","author":"Klein","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.0000140772.40322.ec","article-title":"Retinal arteriolar narrowing is associated with 5-Year incident severe hypertension","volume":"44","author":"Smith","year":"2004","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.0000199104.61945.33","article-title":"Retinal vessel diameters and risk of hypertension","volume":"47","author":"Ikram","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib56","first-page":"2520","article-title":"Correlation between morphological and functional retinal impairment in multiple sclerosis patients","volume":"40","author":"Parisi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1016\/S1388-2457(01)00620-4","article-title":"Morphological and functional retinal impairment in Alzheimer's disease patients","volume":"112","author":"Parisi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2017.01.001","article-title":"Imaging retina to study dementia and stroke","volume":"57","author":"Cheung","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2018.1563","article-title":"Association of retinal neurodegeneration on optical coherence tomography with dementia: a population-based Study","volume":"75","author":"Mutlu","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2018.1578","article-title":"Association of retinal nerve fiber layer thinning with Current and future cognitive decline: a Study using optical coherence tomography","volume":"75","author":"Ko","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib61","series-title":"OCT in Central Nervous System Diseases","author":"Grzybowski","year":"2016"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0b013e328347266c","article-title":"Quantitative and qualitative retinal microvascular characteristics and blood pressure","volume":"29","author":"Cheung","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Hypertens"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2008.05.029","article-title":"The retinal vasculature as a fractal: methodology, reliability, and relationship to blood pressure","volume":"115","author":"Liew","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.287.9.1153","article-title":"Retinal arteriolar narrowing and risk of coronary heart disease in men and women. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study","volume":"287","author":"Wong","year":"2002","journal-title":"Jama"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2013.13020234","article-title":"Microvascular abnormality in schizophrenia as shown by retinal imaging","volume":"170","author":"Meier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797612470959","article-title":"Retinal vessel caliber and lifelong neuropsychological functioning: retinal imaging as an investigative tool for cognitive epidemiology","volume":"24","author":"Shalev","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-018-0195-0","article-title":"Prediction of cardiovascular risk factors from retinal fundus photographs via deep learning","volume":"2","author":"Poplin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Biomed Eng"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-020-00626-4","article-title":"A deep-learning system for the assessment of cardiovascular disease risk via the measurement of retinal-vessel calibre","volume":"5","author":"Cheung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Biomed Eng"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06555-x","article-title":"A foundation model for generalizable disease detection from retinal images","volume":"622","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2708","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-023-03365-0","article-title":"Retina oculomics in neurodegenerative disease","volume":"51","author":"Suh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann Biomed Eng"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s40662-024-00384-3","article-title":"Prognostic potentials of AI in ophthalmology: systemic disease forecasting via retinal imaging","volume":"11","author":"Tan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eye Vis"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2025.101350","article-title":"Oculomics: current concepts and evidence","volume":"106","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e526","DOI":"10.1016\/S2589-7500(20)30216-8","article-title":"Prediction of systemic biomarkers from retinal photographs: development and validation of deep-learning algorithms","volume":"2","author":"Rim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Digit Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e257","DOI":"10.1016\/S2589-7500(23)00022-5","article-title":"A deep learning model for novel systemic biomarkers in photographs of the external eye: a retrospective study","volume":"5","author":"Babenko","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Digit Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-023-02724-4","article-title":"AI-integrated ocular imaging for predicting cardiovascular disease: advancements and future outlook","volume":"38","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1007\/s40123-024-00942-x","article-title":"Oculomics: a crusade against the four horsemen of chronic disease","volume":"13","author":"Patterson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ophthalmol Ther"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2150","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12092150","article-title":"Retinal imaging-based oculomics: artificial intelligence as a tool in the diagnosis of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases","volume":"12","author":"Ghenciu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2024.11.018","article-title":"Transformative applications of oculomics-based AI approaches in the management of systemic diseases: a systematic review","volume":"75","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Adv Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0b013e3283516876","article-title":"Do microvascular retinal changes improve cardiovascular risk estimation?","volume":"30","author":"Cuspidi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Hypertens"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-015-3511-1","article-title":"The clinical implications of recent studies on the structure and function of the retinal microvasculature in diabetes","volume":"58","author":"Cheung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2346","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0b013e328332d1fb","article-title":"Retinal microvascular abnormalities: can they predict future risk of hypertension?","volume":"27","author":"Houben","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Hypertens"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.7.2.12","article-title":"Towards standardization of quantitative retinal vascular parameters: comparison of SIVA and VAMPIRE measurements in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936","volume":"7","author":"McGrory","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transl Vis Sci Technol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-89743-x","article-title":"Predicting sex from retinal fundus photographs using automated deep learning","volume":"11","author":"Korot","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.82364","article-title":"Longitudinal fundus imaging and its genome-wide association analysis provide evidence for a human retinal aging clock","volume":"12","author":"Ahadi","year":"2023","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2025.101352","article-title":"AI explainability in oculomics: how it works, its role in establishing trust, and what still needs to be addressed","volume":"106","author":"An","year":"2025","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e249","DOI":"10.1016\/S2589-7500(23)00047-X","article-title":"AI for identification of systemic biomarkers from external eye photos: a promising field in the oculomics revolution","volume":"5","author":"DeBuc","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Digit Health"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo-2024-325459","article-title":"Foundation models in ophthalmology","volume":"108","author":"Chia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1097\/ICU.0000000000001089","article-title":"Vision language models in ophthalmology","volume":"35","author":"Lim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr Opin Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCIMAGING.122.014519","article-title":"Explainable artificial intelligence and cardiac imaging: toward more interpretable models","volume":"16","author":"Salih","year":"2023","journal-title":"Circ Cardiovasc Imaging"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1056\/AIcs2400497","article-title":"How generalizable are foundation models when applied to different demographic groups and settings?","volume":"2","author":"Xiong","year":"2025","journal-title":"NEJM AI"},{"key":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079_bib91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jproteome.3c00756","article-title":"Liquid biopsy proteomics in ophthalmology","volume":"23","author":"Wolf","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Proteome Res"}],"container-title":["Ophthalmology Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S2666914526000175?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S2666914526000175?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T08:18:49Z","timestamp":1776241129000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S2666914526000175"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["S2666914526000175"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079","relation":{},"ISSN":["2666-9145"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2666-9145","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Evolution of Oculomics: From Naked Eye Observations to Artificial Intelligence over 100 Years","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Ophthalmology Science","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101079","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 American Academy of Ophthalmology. Published by Elsevier Inc.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"101079"}}