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The field is strongly dominated by rigid exoskeletons driven by electromagnetic actuators constituted by electrical motors, gearboxes, and cylinders. This review focuses on the design and specifications of the actuation systems of lower limb exoskeletons, with the ultimate goal of providing reporting guidelines to allow for full reproducibility. For each paper, we assessed the quality and completeness of technical characteristics with two <jats:italic>ad hoc<\/jats:italic> rating scales for motors and reducers; we extracted the main parameters of the actuation unit and a quantitative analysis of the mechanical characteristics of the individual components was carried out considering the exoskeleton application. Overall, we observed a lack of details in reporting on actuation systems equipped on exoskeletons. To overcome this limitation, herein we conclude by proposing a data form and a checklist to provide researchers with a common approach in reporting the mechanical characteristics of the actuation unit of their lower limb exoskeletons. We believe that the convergence of exoskeletons\u2019 literature toward a clearer standardization of design and reporting will boost the development of this technology and its diffusion outside the laboratory.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0263574725000220","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,18]],"date-time":"2025-03-18T09:42:00Z","timestamp":1742290920000},"page":"1572-1589","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["A scoping review on lower limb exoskeleton actuation\u2019s description and characteristics"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"43","author":[{"given":"Francesco","family":"Bettella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9918-1221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"Tortora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emanuele","family":"Menegatti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicola","family":"Petrone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessandra","family":"Del Felice","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2018.2854416"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref44","first-page":"597","article-title":"R318application of lower limb exoskeletons rehabilitation robots in rehabilitation treatment of activity limited knee joint","volume":"16","author":"Wan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[91] Fang, J. , Ren, Y. and Zhang, D. , \u201cA Robotic Exoskeleton for Lower Limb Rehabilitation Controlled by Central Pattern Generator,\u201d In: 2014 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO 2014), IEEE, New York City, US (2014) pp. 814\u2013818.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO.2014.7090432"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref7","first-page":"278","article-title":"Lower-limb medical and rehabilitation exoskeletons: A review of the current designs","volume":"16","author":"Plaza","year":"2021","journal-title":"R-BME"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s20092660"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2024.3405381"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICInfA.2014.6932635"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMRB.2024.3504002"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2015.2448278"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Biomimetic compliant lower limb exoskeleton (biocomex) and its experimental evaluation","volume":"41","author":"Baser","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Braz Soc Mech Sci"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[35] Yildirim, M. 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S. , \u201cDesign and robust control of a 2 dofs lower limb exoskeleton, \u201c 2018 International Conference on Communications and Electrical Engineering (ICCEE), IEEE, New York City, US (2018) pp. 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCEE.2018.8634540"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0954406217749869"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2013.2250295"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.1223831"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2019.2954769"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0954406218761484"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-015-0324-9"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMRB.2021.3052014"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-018-0360-4"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbas.2021.100013"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15344\/2455-7498\/2015\/102"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4026900"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[52] Seo, K. , Kim, K. , Park, Y. J. , Cho, J.-K. , Lee, J. , Choi, B. , Lim, B. , Lee, Y. and Shim, Y. , \u201cAdaptive oscillator-based control for active lower-limb exoskeleton and its metabolic impact, \u201c2018 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), IEEE, New York City, US (2018) pp. 6752\u20136758","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2018.8460841"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[40] Ferrati, F. , Bortoletto, R. , Menegatti, E. and Pagello, E. , \u201cSocio-Economic Impact of Medical Lower-Limb Exoskeletons,\u201d In: In, 2013 IEEE Workshop On Advanced Robotics and Its Social Impacts , (IEEE, (2013) pp. 19\u201326.","DOI":"10.1109\/ARSO.2013.6705500"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2023.3348985"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/BIOROB.2014.6913824"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2011.2175443"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2022.3169235"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40998-020-00358-w"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-020-05554-7"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[56] Levesque, L. , Pardoel, S. , Lovrenovic, Z. and Doumit, M. , \u201cExperimental comfort assessment of an active exoskeleton interface,\u201d2017 IEEE International Symposium on Robotics and Intelligent Sensors (IRIS), IEEE, New York City, US (2017) pp. 38\u201343.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRIS.2017.8250095"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030789"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[86] Vouga, T. , Baud, R. , Fasola, J. , Bouri, M. and Bleuler, H. , \u201cTwiice\u2013a lightweight lower-limb exoskeleton for complete paraplegics, \u201c2017 International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics (ICORR), IEEE, New York City, US (2017) pp. 1639\u20131645.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2017.8009483"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[90] Park, J.-H. , Lee, J.-S. , Shin, J.-S. and Cho, B.-K. , \u201cDesign of a Lower Limb Exoskeleton Including Roll Actuation to Assist Walking and Standing Up,\u201d 2015 IEEE-RAS 15th International Conference on Humanoid Robots (Humanoids), IEEE, New York City, US (2015) pp. 359\u2013364.","DOI":"10.1109\/HUMANOIDS.2015.7363575"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11030388"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2021.3049960"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.20965\/jrm.2023.p0601"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[61] Zhou, S. , Chen, Z. , Song, W. , Zhu, S. , Jin, L. and Gu, J. , \u201cDesign and gait realization of power-assisted lower limbs exoskeleton, \u201c IEEE International Conference on Cybernetics and Intelligent Systems (CIS) and IEEE Conference on Robotics, Automation and Mechatronics (RAM) 2019, IEEE, New York City, US (2019) pp. 101\u2013106.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIS-RAM47153.2019.9095817"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/THC-220742"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[87] Zhu, Z. , Jiang, C. , Wang, X. , Chen, J. , He, L. and Wu, Q. , \u201cDesign of a Wearable Lower Limb Exoskeleton for Paralyzed Individuals, \u201c2016, 23rd International Conference on Mechatronics and Machine Vision in Practice (M2VIP), IEEE, New York City, US (2016) pp. 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1109\/M2VIP.2016.7827296"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-11-3"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/585837"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[28] Taza-Aquino, Y. and Huamanchahua, D. , \u201cMechanical and electronic design of a prototype of a modular exoskeleton for lower-limbs, \u201d IEEE International IOT, Electronics and Mechatronics Conference (IEMTRONICS) 2022, IEEE, New York City, US (2022) pp. 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMTRONICS55184.2022.9795712"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[18] Christensen, S. , Bai, S. , Rafique, S. , Isaksson, M. , O\u2019Sullivan, L. , Power, V. and Virk, G. 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D. , Noorden, J. H. , Craig, T. J. , Torres, T. , Kirschbaum, J. and Pratt, J. E. , \u201cDesign and Evaluation of Mina: A Robotic Orthosis for Paraplegics, \u201c2011 IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, IEEE, New York City, US (2011) pp. 1\u20138.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2011.5975468"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[48] Banchadit, W. , Temram, A. , Sukwan, T. , Owatchaiyapong, P. and Suthakorn, J. , \u201cDesign and implementation of a new motorized-mechanical exoskeleton based on cga patternized control,\u201d 2012 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO), IEEE, New York City, US (2012) pp. 1668\u20131673.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO.2012.6491207"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5370\/JEET.2015.10.6.2376"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[51] Sanngoen, W. , Nillnawarad, S. and Patchim, S. , \u201cDesign and development of low-cost assistive device for lower limb exoskeleton robot, \u201c2017, 10th International Conference on Human System Interactions (HSI), IEEE, New York City, US (2017) pp. 148\u2013153","DOI":"10.1109\/HSI.2017.8005017"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[55] Yan, Z. , Li, N. , Long, X. , Ren, H. and Wu, X. ,\u201cBionic mechanical design and stair ascending\/descending gait planning of a lower-limb exoskeleton robot, \u201d2018 IEEE International Conference on Cyborg and Bionic Systems (CBS), IEEE, New York City, US (2018) pp. 155\u2013160.","DOI":"10.1109\/CBS.2018.8612274"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[29] Wang, J. , Wu, D. , Dong, W. and Gao, Y. , \u201cA control strategy for squat assistance of lower limb exoskeleton with back sensing, \u201d In, 2022 IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA), IEEE, New York City, US (2022) pp. 1312\u20131317.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMA54519.2022.9856343"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[76] Zhou, X. , Yu, Z. , Wang, M. , Chen, D. and Ye, X. ,\u201cDesign of control system for lower limb exoskeleton robot, \u201d8th International Conference on Control, Automation and Robotics (ICCAR) 2022, IEEE, New York City, US (2022) pp. 122\u2013126.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCAR55106.2022.9782599"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"[39] Ferrati, F. , Bortoletto, R. , Menegatti, E. and Pagello, E. , \u201cSocio-Economic Impact of Medical Lower-Limb Exoskeletons,\u201d 2013 IEEE workshop on advanced robotics and its social impacts, IEEE, New York City, US (2013) pp. 19\u201326.","DOI":"10.1109\/ARSO.2013.6705500"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2007.903919"},{"key":"S0263574725000220_ref58","first-page":"100107","article-title":"Biomechanical design and control of an eight dof human lower extremity rehabilitation exoskeleton robot","volume":"7","author":"Hasan","year":"2022","journal-title":"RICO"}],"container-title":["Robotica"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0263574725000220","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T09:47:26Z","timestamp":1750326446000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0263574725000220\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,18]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["S0263574725000220"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0263574725000220","relation":{},"ISSN":["0263-5747","1469-8668"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0263-5747","type":"print"},{"value":"1469-8668","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,18]]}}}