{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T07:10:13Z","timestamp":1778656213883,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":216,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2005,5,12]],"date-time":"2005-05-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1115856000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Dev Psychopathol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2005,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Biological reactivity to psychological stressors comprises a complex, \nintegrated, and highly conserved repertoire of central neural and \nperipheral neuroendocrine responses designed to prepare the organism for \nchallenge or threat. Developmental experience plays a role, along with \nheritable, polygenic variation, in calibrating the response dynamics of \nthese systems, with early adversity biasing their combined effects toward \na profile of heightened or prolonged reactivity. Conventional views of \nsuch high reactivity suggest that it is an atavistic and pathogenic legacy \nof an evolutionary past in which threats to survival were more prevalent \nand severe. Recent evidence, however, indicates that (a) stress reactivity \nis not a unitary process, but rather incorporates counterregulatory \ncircuits serving to modify or temper physiological arousal, and (b) the \neffects of high reactivity phenotypes on psychiatric and biomedical \noutcomes are bivalent, rather than univalent, in character, exerting both \nrisk-augmenting and risk-protective effects in a context-dependent manner. \nThese observations suggest that heightened stress reactivity may reflect, \nnot simply exaggerated arousal under challenge, but rather an increased\n                    <jats:italic>biological sensitivity to context<\/jats:italic>\n                    , with potential for negative \nhealth effects under conditions of adversity and positive effects under \nconditions of support and protection. From an evolutionary perspective, \nthe developmental plasticity of the stress response systems, along with \ntheir structured, context-dependent effects, suggests that these systems \nmay constitute\n                    <jats:italic>conditional adaptations<\/jats:italic>\n                    : evolved psychobiological \nmechanisms that monitor specific features of childhood environments as a \nbasis for calibrating the development of stress response systems to \nadaptively match those environments. Taken together, these theoretical \nperspectives generate a novel hypothesis: that there is a curvilinear, \nU-shaped relation between early exposures to adversity and the development \nof stress-reactive profiles, with high reactivity phenotypes \ndisproportionately emerging within\n                    <jats:italic>both<\/jats:italic>\n                    highly stressful and \nhighly protected early social environments.\n                    <jats:fn>\n                      <jats:p>The research on which this paper was based was supported by \ngrants from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation's \nResearch Network on Psychopathology and Development, the National \nInstitute of Child Health and Human Development (1RO1 HD 24718), and by \nthe Division of Intramural Research of NICHD. The first author is \nparticularly indebted to Dr. Steve Suomi and Dr. Jan Genevro for a series \nof conversations that directly influenced the ideas upon which this paper \nis based. We also thank Dr. Jay Belsky and Dr. David Bjorklund for their \nhelpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.<\/jats:p>\n                    <\/jats:fn>\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0954579405050145","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2005,5,13]],"date-time":"2005-05-13T10:30:51Z","timestamp":1115980251000},"page":"271-301","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1615,"title":["Biological sensitivity to context: I. An \nevolutionary\u2013developmental theory of the origins and functions of \nstress reactivity"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"W. THOMAS","family":"BOYCE","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California"}]},{"given":"BRUCE J.","family":"ELLIS","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Arizona"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2005,5,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1993.01820200025003"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greene, E. (1996).Effect of light quality and larval diet on morph induction in thepolymorphic caterpillar Nemoria arizonaria (Lepidoptera:Geometridae).Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 58,277\u2013285.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8312.1996.tb01435.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crawford, C. B. , & Anderson, J. L. (1989).Sociobiology: An environmentalist discipline? American Psychologist 44,1449\u20131459.","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.44.12.1449"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calkins, S. D. , & Fox, N. A. (1992).The relations among infant temperament, security of attachment, andbehavioral inhibition at twenty-four months.Child Development 63,1456\u20131472.","DOI":"10.2307\/1131568"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0889-8529(05)70208-5"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref167","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2004.00707.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.100.4.716"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adler, P. S. , & Ditto, B. (1998).Psychophysiological effects of interviews about emotional events onoffspring of hypertensives and normotensives.International Journal of Psychophysiology 28,263\u2013271.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(97)00078-0"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Draper, P. , & Harpending, H. (1982).Father absence and reproductive strategy: An evolutionaryperspective.Journal of Anthropological Research 38,255\u2013273.","DOI":"10.1086\/jar.38.3.3629848"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyce, W. T. , Quas, J. , Alkon, A. , Smider, N. , Essex, M. , & Kupfer, D. J. (2001).Autonomic reactivity and psychopathology in middle childhood.British Journal of Psychiatry 179,144\u2013150.","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.179.2.144"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref192","unstructured":"Suomi, S. J. (1987a).Individual differences in rhesus monkey behavioral andadrenocortical responses to social challenge: Correlations with measuresof heart rate variability.Paper presented at the Heart Rate Variability and SocialBehavior:Behavioral and Biological Correlates Conference, Baltimore,MD."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Draper, P. , & Harpending, H. (1988).A sociobiological perspective on the development of humanreproductive strategies.In K. B. MacDonald (Ed.),Sociobiological perspectives on human development(pp. 340\u2013372).New York:Springer\u2013Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-3760-0_12"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref202","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2826.2002.00798.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chisholm, J. S. (1999).Death, hope and sex: Steps to an evolutionary ecology of mind andmorality.New York:Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511605932"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(00)00965-3"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S095457940100308X"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.58.12.1145"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belsky, J. (2000).Conditional and alternative reproductive strategies: Individualdifferences in susceptiblity to rearing experiences.In J. L. Rodgers , D. C. Rowe , & W. B. Miller (Eds.),Genetic influences on human fertility and sexuality: Theoretical andempirical contributions from the biological and behavioral sciences(pp. 127\u2013145).Boston:Kluwer Academic.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-4467-8_9"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Byrne, G. , & Suomi, S. J. (2002).Cortisol reactivity and its relation to homecage behavior andpersonality ratings in tufted capuchin (Cebus apella) juvenilesfrom birth to six years of age.Psychoneuroendocrinology,27(1\u20132),139\u2013154.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4530(01)00041-5"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fox, N. A. , Henderson, H. A. , Rubin, K. H. , Calkins, S. D. , & Schmidt, L. A. (2001).Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition andexuberance: Psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the firstfour years of life.Child Development 72,1\u201321.","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00262"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref097","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gunnar, M. R. (1994).Psychoendocrine studies of temperament and stress in earlychildhood: Expanding current models.In J. E. Bates & T. D. Wachs (Eds.),Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology andbehavior(pp. 175\u2013198).Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.","DOI":"10.1037\/10149-006"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref085","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X0000337X"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alkon, A. , Goldstein, L. H. , Smider, N. , Essex, M. , Kupfer, D. , & Boyce, W. T. (2003).Developmental and contextual influences on autonomic reactivity inyoung children.Developmental Psychobiology 42,64\u201378.","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.10082"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref125","unstructured":"Kohn, P. M. (1991).Reactivity and anxiety in the laboratory and beyond. In J. Strelau & A. Angleitner (Eds.),Explorations in temperament: International perspectives on theoryand measurement.London:Plenum Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boutros, N. N. , Torello, M. W. , Barker, B. A. , Tueting, P. A. , Wu, S. C. , & Nasrallah, H. A. (1995).The P50 evoked potential component and mismatch detection in normalvolunteers: Implications for the study of sensory gating.Psychiatry Research 57,83\u201388.","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1781(95)02637-C"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/edrv-5-1-25"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyce, W. T. , Chesney, M. , Alkon\u2013Leonard, A. , Tschann, J. , Adams, S. , Chesterman, B. , Cohen, F. , Kaiser, P. , Folkman, S. , & Wara, D. (1995).Psychobiologic reactivity to stress and childhood respiratoryillnesses: Results of two prospective studies.Psychosomatic Medicine 57,411\u2013422.","DOI":"10.1097\/00006842-199509000-00001"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellis, B. J. , & Garber, J. (2000).Psychosocial antecedents of variation in girls' pubertaltiming: Maternal depression, stepfather presence, and marital and familystress.Child Development 71,485\u2013501.","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00159"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sapolsky, R. M. , Romero, L. M. , & Munck, A. U. (2000).How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integratingpermissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions.Endocrine Reviews 21,55\u201389.","DOI":"10.1210\/edrv.21.1.0389"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref211","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3956(01)00032-2"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.103.3.345"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref215","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130050130"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chrousos, G. P. (1998).Stressors, stress, and neuroendocrine integration of the adaptiveresponse. The 1997 Hans Selye Memorial Lecture.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 851,311\u2013335.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09006.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579497002071"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref185","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(00)80491-2"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(95)00106-Z"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Essex, M. J. , Klein, M. H. , Cho, E. , & Kalin, N. H. (2002).Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to laterstress exposure: Effects on cortisol and behavior.Biological Psychiatry 52,776\u2013784.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(02)01553-6"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref189","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00058"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellis, B. J. , & Ketelaar, T. (2000).On the natural selection of alternative models: Evaluation ofexplanations in evolutionary psychology.Psychological Inquiry 11,56\u201368.","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327965PLI1101_03"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davidson, R. J. , & Irwin, W. (1999).The functional neuroanatomy of emotion and affective style.Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3,11\u201321.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(98)01265-0"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref201","unstructured":"Vazquez, D. M. , Watson, S. J. , & Lopez, J. F. (2000, July).Failure to terminate stress responses in children with psychosocialdwarfism: A mechanism for growth failure.Paper presented at the International Conference of InfantStudies, Brighton, UK."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/brbi.1995.1004"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Busjahn, A. , Faulhaber, H. D. , Viken, R. J. , Rose, R. J. , & Luft, F. C. (1996).Genetic influences on blood pressure with the cold-pressor test: Atwin study.Journal of Hypertension 14(10),1195\u20131199.","DOI":"10.1097\/00004872-199610000-00007"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref181","unstructured":"Selye, H. (1950).Stress: The physiology and pathology of exposure to stress.Montreal:Acta Medical Publishers."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coplan, J. D. , Andrews, M. W. , Rosenblum, L. A. , Owens, M. J. , Friedman, S. , Gorman, J. M. , & Nemeroff, C. B. (1996).Persistent elevations of cerebrospinal fluid concentrations ofcorticotropin-releasing factor in adult nonhuman primates exposed toearly-life stressors: Implications for the pathophysiology of mood andanxiety disorders.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United Statesof America 93,1619\u20131623.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.4.1619"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref178","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0193-953X(05)70318-X"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eysenck, H. J. , & Eysenck, M. W. (1985).Personality and individual differences: A natural scienceapproach.New York:Plenum Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-2413-3"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref087","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.46.6.1303"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.1994.tb13260.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ketelaar, T. , & Ellis, B. J. (2000).Are evolutionary explainations unfalsifiable? Evolutionarypsychology and the Lakatosian philosophy of science.Psychological Inquiry 11,1\u201321.","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327965PLI1101_01"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.284.5.592"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellis, B. J. (2004).Timing of pubertal maturation in girls: An integrated life historyapproach.Psychological Bulletin 130,920\u2013958.","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.130.6.920"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref170","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0074-7742(08)60350-5"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyce, W. T. , Champoux, M. , Suomi, S. J. , & Gunnar, M. R. (1995).Salivary cortisol in nursery-reared rhesus monkeys: Reactivity topeer interactions and altered circadian activity.Developmental Psychobiology 28,257\u2013267.","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.420280502"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0191-8869(86)90108-X"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref212","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579401003170"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref193","unstructured":"Suomi, S. J. (1987b).Genetic and maternal contributions to individual differences inRhesus monkey biobehavioral development.In N. Krasnagor (Ed.),Psychobiological aspects of behavioral development(pp. 397\u2013419).New York:Academic Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1130685"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199801153380307"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00039595"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shimamura, A. P. (2000).The role of the prefrontal cortex in dynamic filtering.Psychobiology 28,207\u2013218.","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03331979"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref086","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3999(89)90044-5"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bentley, P. J. (1998).Comparative vertebrate endocrinology.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9780511804021"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bergman, P. , & Escalona, S. K. (1949).Unusual sensitivities in very young children.Pschoanalytic Studies of the Child 4,333\u2013352.","DOI":"10.1080\/00797308.1947.11823091"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.420210306"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belsky, J. , Hsieh, K. , & Crnic, K. (1998).Mothering, fathering, and infant negativity as antecedents ofboys' externalizing problems and inhibition at age 3: Differentialsusceptibility to rearing influence? Development and Psychopathology 10,301\u2013319.","DOI":"10.1017\/S095457949800162X"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref172","unstructured":"Rolls, E. T. (1999).The brain and emotion.Oxford:Oxford University Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref047","unstructured":"Chesterman, E. , Boyce, W. T. , & Winkleby, M. A. (1989).Psychosocial predictors of maternal and infant health: A\u201csense of permanence\u201d as a mediating variable(Abstract).Paper presented at the Society of Behavioral Medicine AnnualMeeting, San Francisco."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref197","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.27.1.18"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1131829"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feldman, R. , Greenbaum, C. , & Yirmiya, N. (1999).Mother\u2013infant affect synchrony as an antecedent of theemergence of self-control.Developmental Psychology 35,223\u2013231.","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.35.1.223"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belsky, J. (1997).Variation in susceptibility to environmental influence: Anevolutionary argument.Psychological Inquiry 8,182\u2013186.","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327965pli0803_3"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernald, L. C. , & Grantham\u2013McGregor, S. M. (1998).Stress response in school-age children who have been growth retardedsince early childhood.American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68,691\u2013698.","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/68.3.691"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mealey, L. (2001).Kinship: The tie that binds (disciplines). In H. Holcomb (Ed.),Conceptual challenges in evolutionary psychology.New York:Kluwer Academic.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-010-0618-7_2"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref209","unstructured":"Worthman, C. M. , Angold, A. , & Costello, E. J. (1998).Stress, reactivity and psychiatric risk in adolescents.Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society forResearch on Adolescence, San Diego, CA, February 26\u201328."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, B. , Leeton, J. , McLeod, I. , & Wood, C. (1972).Factors influencing the age of menarche in a lower socioeconomicgroup in Melbourne.Medical Journal of Australia 2,533\u2013535.","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.1972.tb47460.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cratty, M. S. , Ward, H. E. , Johnson, E. A. , Azzaro, A. J. , & Birkle, D. L. (1995).Prenatal stress increases corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)content and release in rat amygdala minces.Brain Research 675,297\u2013302.","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(95)00087-7"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dallman, M. F. , Akana, S. F. , Cascio, C. S. , Darlington, D. N. , Jacobson, L. , & Levin, N. (1987).Regulation of ACTH secretion: Variations on a theme of B.Recent Progress in Hormone Research 43,113\u2013173.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-571143-2.50010-1"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref179","unstructured":"Schlichting, C. D. , & Pigliucci, M. (1998).Phenotypic evolution: A reaction norm perspective.Sunderland, MA:Sinauer Associates."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gold, P. W. , Goodwin, F. K. , & Chrousos, G. P. (1988).Clinical and biochemical manifestations of depression. Relation tothe neurobiology of stress (1).New England Journal of Medicine 319,348\u2013353.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198808113190606"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(99)00224-3"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref099","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579401003066"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579499002023"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bullock, W. A. , & Gilliland, K. (1993).Eysenck's arousal theory of introversion\u2013extraversion: Aconverging measures investigation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64,113\u2013123.","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.64.1.113"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref128","unstructured":"Lacey, J. I. (1959).Psychophysiological approaches to the evaluation ofpsychotherapeutic process and outcome.In E. A. Rubinstein & M. B. Parloff (Eds.),Research in psychotherapy(pp. 161\u2013196).Washington, DC:American Psychological Association."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref187","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(96)00489-1"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004872-199816090-00003"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1131254"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref096","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-5347(96)81050-0"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00006842-198807000-00003"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref205","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.1320600605"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref151","unstructured":"Mealey, L. (2000).Sex differences: Development and evolutionary strategies.San Diego, CA:Academic Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00505.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref129","unstructured":"Lakatos, I. (1970).Falsificationism and the methodology of scientific researchprogrammes.In I. Lakatos & A. Musgrave (Eds.),Criticism and the growth of knowledge(pp. 91\u2013196).Cambridge:Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bartels, M. , de Geus, E. J. , Kirschbaum, C. , Sluyter, F. , & Boomsma, D. I. (2003).Heritability of daytime cortisol levels in children.Behavior Genetics 33,421\u2013433.","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025321609994"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/1098-2302(200011)37:3<153::AID-DEV4>3.0.CO;2-Y"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cannon, W. B. (1929).Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage.New York:Appleton.","DOI":"10.1097\/00007611-192909000-00037"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belsky, J. , Steinberg, L. , & Draper, P. (1991).Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductivestrategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization.Child Development 62,647\u2013670.","DOI":"10.2307\/1131166"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ekman, P. , Levenson, R. W. , & Friesen, W. V. (1983).Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes amongemotions.Science 221(4616),1208\u20131210.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6612338"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref200","unstructured":"van der Saag, P. T. , Caldenhoven, E. , & van de Stolpe, A. (1996).Molecular mechanisms of steroid action: A novel type of cross-talkbetween glucocorticoids and NF-kappa B transcription factors. EuropeanRespiratory Journal ,Supplement 22,146s\u2013153s."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Higley, J. D. , & Linnoila, M. (1997).Low central nervous system serotonergic activity is traitlike andcorrelates with impulsive behavior. A nonhuman primate model investigatinggenetic and environmental influences on neurotransmission.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 836,39\u201356.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1997.tb52354.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Comings, D. E. , Muhleman, D. , Johnson, J. P. , & MacMurray, J. P. (2002).Parent\u2013daughter transmission of the androgen receptor gene asan explanation of the effect of father absence on age of menarche.Child Development 73,1046\u20131051.","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00456"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref161","unstructured":"Nesse, R. M. , & Young, E. A. (2000).Evolutionary origins and functions of the stress response.In G. Fink (Ed.),Encyclopedia of stress(Vol. 2,pp. 79\u201384).New York:Academic Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campbell, J. B. , & Hawley, C. W. (1982).Study habits and Eysenck's theory ofextraversion\u2013introversion.Journal of Research in Personality 16,139\u2013146.","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-6566(82)90070-8"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref177","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.1350320404"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-2236(94)90079-5"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deater\u2013Deckard, K. , & Dodge, K. (1997).Spare the rod, spoil the authors: Emerging themes in research onparenting.Psychological Inquiry 8,230\u2013235.","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327965pli0803_13"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1131801"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.56.3.227"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cacioppo, J. T. , Berntson, G. G. , Malarkey, W. B. , Kiecolt\u2013Glaser, J. K. , Sheridan, J. F. , Poehlmann, K. M. , Burleson, M. H. , Ernst, J. M. , Hawkley, L. C. , & Glaser, R. (1998).Autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immune responses to psychologicalstress: The reactivity hypothesis.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 840,664\u2013673.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09605.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref171","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1130344"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Braff, D. L. , & Geyer, M. A. (1990).Sensorimotor gating and schizophrenia. Human and animal modelstudies.Archives of General Psychiatry 47,181\u2013188.","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1990.01810140081011"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref093","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02699939008410799"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref206","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9384(00)00270-5"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref195","unstructured":"Surbey, M. K. (1990).Family composition, stress, and the timing of humanmenarche. In T. E. Ziegler (Ed.),Socioendocrinology of primate reproduction. Monographs inprimatology(pp. 11\u201332).New York:Wiley\u2013Liss."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref092","unstructured":"Gray, J. A. (1982).The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of thesepto-hippocampal system.New York:Clarendon\/Oxford University Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.24.1.1161"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aston\u2013Jones, G. , Rajkowski, J. , Kubiak, P. , Valentino, R. J. , & Shipley, M. T. (1996).Role of the locus coeruleus in emotional activation.Progress in Brain Research 107,379\u2013402.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(08)61877-4"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Champoux, M. , Higley, J. D. , & Suomi, S. J. (1997).Behavioral and physiological characteristics of Indian andChinese\u2013Indian hybrid rhesus macaque infants.Developmental Psychobiology 31,49\u201363.","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2302(199707)31:1<49::AID-DEV5>3.0.CO;2-U"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(90)90568-M"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Issa, A. M. , Rowe, W. , Gauthier, S. , & Meaney, M. J. (1990).Hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal activity in aged,cognitively impaired and cognitively unimpaired rats.Journal of Neuroscience 10,3247\u20133254.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.10-10-03247.1990"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref210","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra012941"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref111","unstructured":"Hrdy, S. B. (1999).Mother nature: Maternal instincts and how they shape the humanspecies.New York:Ballantine Books."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bateson, P. P. G. , Mendl, M. , & Feaver, J. (1990).Play in the domestic cat is enhanced by rationing of the motherduring lactation.Animal Behaviour 40,514\u2013525.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-3472(05)80532-9"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis, C. , Cowles, M. , & Kohn, P. (1984).Behavioural and physiological aspects of the augmenting-reducingdimension.Personality and Individual Differences 5,683\u2013691.","DOI":"10.1016\/0191-8869(84)90116-8"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fox, N. A. (1991).If it's not left, it's right: Electroencephalographasymmetry and the development of emotion.American Psychologist 46,863\u2013872.","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.46.8.863"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valentino, R. J. , Curtis, A. L. , Page, M. E. , Pavcovich, L. A. , & Florin\u2013Lechner, S. M. (1998).Activation of the locus ceruleus brain noradrenergic system duringstress: Circuitry, consequences, and regulation.Advances in Pharmacology 42,781\u2013784.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1054-3589(08)60863-7"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.1993.00410180039004"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goenjian, A. K. , Yehuda, R. , Pynoos, R. S. , Steinberg, A. M. , Tashjian, M. , Yang, R. K. , Najarian, L. M. , & Fairbanks, L. A. (1996).Basal cortisol, dexamethasone suppression of cortisol, and MHPG inadolescents after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia.American Journal of Psychiatry 153,929\u2013934.","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.153.7.929"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dhabhar, F. S. , McEwen, B. S. , & Spencer, R. L. (1993).Stress response, adrenal steroid receptor levels andcorticosteroid-binding globulin levels\u2014A comparison betweenSprague\u2013Dawley, Fischer 344 and Lewis rats.Brain Research, 616(1\u20132),89\u201398.","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(93)90196-T"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.277.5332.1659"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref010","unstructured":"Bauer, A. S. (2002).Concurrent sympathetic and adrenocortical activity as correlates ofbehavior in middle childhood.Unpublished master's thesis,University of California, Berkeley."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, L. S. , Carmelli, D. , Hunt, S. C. , & Williams, R. R. (1997).Segregation analysis of cardiovascular reactivity to laboratorystressors.Genetic Epidemiology 14,35\u201349.","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2272(1997)14:1<35::AID-GEPI3>3.0.CO;2-4"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-328X(93)90189-V"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref180","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2302(199909)35:2<119::AID-DEV5>3.0.CO;2-G"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carter, C. S. (1998).Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love.Psychoneuroendocrinology 23,779\u2013818.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4530(98)00055-9"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.273.5276.749"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allen, M. T. , & Matthews, K. A. (1997).Hemodynamic responses to laboratory stressors in children andadolescents: The influences of age, race, and gender.Psychophysiology 34,329\u2013339.[erratum p. 730]","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02403.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elenkov, I. J. , & Chrousos, G. P. (1999).Stress hormones, Th1\/Th2 patterns, pro\/anti-inflammatorycytokines and susceptibility to disease.Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 10,359\u2013368.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1043-2760(99)00188-5"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref216","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00018938"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Turner, J. R. , & Hewitt, J. K. (1992).Twin studies of cardiovascular response to psychological challenge:A review and suggested future directions.Annals of Behavioral Medicine 14,12\u201320.","DOI":"10.1093\/abm\/14.1.12"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref182","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2345(1998)46:4<311::AID-AJP3>3.0.CO;2-L"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref082","unstructured":"Fox, N. A. , & Card, J. A. (1999).Psychophysiological measures in the study of attachment. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.),Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinicalapplications(pp. 226\u2013245).New York:Guilford Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis, E. , Donzella, B. , Krueger, W. K. , & Gunnar, M. R. (1999).The start of a new school year: Individual differences in salivarycortisol response in relation to child temperament.Developmental Psychobiology 35,188\u2013196.","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2302(199911)35:3<188::AID-DEV3>3.0.CO;2-K"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref089","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1525-1381.1999.09423.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cacioppo, J. T. , Berntson, G. G. , Sheridan, J. F. , & McClintock, M. K. (2000).Multilevel integrative analyses of human behavior: Socialneuroscience and the complementing nature of social and biologicalapproaches.Psychological Bulletin 126,829\u2013843.","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.126.6.829"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref013","unstructured":"Belsky, J. (2005).Differential susceptibility to rearing influence: An evolutionaryhypothesis and some evidence.In B. J. Ellis & D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.),Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and childdevelopment(pp. 139\u2013163).New York:Guilford Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref116","unstructured":"Kagan, J. (1994).Galen's prophecy.New York:Basic Books."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199710000-00029"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klonowicz, T. (1987).Reactivity and the control of arousal. In J. Strelau & J. H. Eysenck (Eds.),Personality dimensions and arousal. Perspectives on individualdifferences(pp. 183\u2013196).New York:Plenum Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-2043-0_11"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1132114"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asendorpf, J. B. , & Meier, G. H. (1993).Personality effects on children's speech in everyday life:Sociability-mediated exposure and shyness-mediated reactivity to socialsituations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64,1072\u20131083.","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.64.6.1072"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511621123"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1130900"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref165","unstructured":"Perry, B. (1994).Neurobiological sequelae of childhood trauma: PTSD inchildren. In M. Murburg (Ed.),Catecholamine function in post-traumatic stresss disorder: Emergingconcepts(pp. 233\u2013255).Washington, DC:American Psychiatric Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref184","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/408082"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Owens, M. J. , & Nemeroff, C. B. (1991).Physiology and pharmacology of corticotropin-releasingfactor.Pharmacological Reviews 43,425\u2013473.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-6997(25)06673-6"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Champoux, M. , & Suomi, S. J. (1994).Behavioral and adrenocortical responses of rhesus macaque mothers toinfant separation in an unfamiliar environment.Primates 35,191\u2013202.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02382054"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aron, E. N. , & Aron, A. (1997).Sensory-processing sensitivity and its relation to introversion andemotionality.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73,345\u2013368.","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.73.2.345"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blair, C. (2002).Early intervention for low birth weight preterm infants: The role ofnegative emotionality in the specification of effects.Development and Psychopathology 14,311\u2013332.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579402002079"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Haan, M. , Gunnar, M. R. , Tout, K. , Hart, J. , & Stansbury, K. (1998).Familiar and novel contexts yield different associations betweencortisol and behavior among 2-year-olds.Developmental Psychobiology 31,93\u2013101.","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2302(199807)33:1<93::AID-DEV8>3.0.CO;2-N"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref204","unstructured":"Waddington, C. H. (1966).Principles of development and differentiation.New York:MacMillan."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref213","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(98)00276-5"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref101","unstructured":"Harlow, H. F. , Harlow, M. K. , & Suomi, S. J. (1971).From thought to therapy: Lessons from a primate laboratory.American Scientist 59,538\u2013549."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref186","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1995.tb02949.x"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref145","unstructured":"Matthews, K. A. (1986).Summary, conclusions and implications. In K. A. Matthews , S. M. Weiss , & T. Detre (Eds.),Handbood of stress, reactivity and cardiovascular disease.New York:Wiley\u2013Interscience."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref084","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1131909"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.920180503"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00006842-200011000-00004"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0959-4388(94)90056-6"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref094","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.243.4891.643"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref023","unstructured":"Boyce, W. T. (1996).Biobehavioral reactivity and injuries in children andadolescents.In M. H. Bornstein & J. Genevro (Eds.),Child development and behavioral pediatrics: Toward understandingchildren and health.Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, S. W. , Jemerin, J. J. , Tschann, J. M. , Irwin, C. E. , Wara, D. W. , & Boyce, W. T. (1995).Life events, cardiovascular reactivity, and risk behavior inadolescent boys.Pediatrics 96,1101\u20131105.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.96.6.1101"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-0348-7330-7_16"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref066","unstructured":"Dubos, R. J. (1965).Man adapting.New Haven, CT:Yale University Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eliasz, A. (1987).Temperament-contingent cognitive orientation toward various aspectsof reality.In J. Strelau & J. H. Eysenck (Eds.),Personality dimensions and arousal. Perspectives on individualdifferences(pp. 197\u2013212).New York:Plenum Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-2043-0_12"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-9384(72)90382-4"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castellanos, F. X. , Fine, E. J. , Kaysen, D. , Marsh, W. L. , Rapoport, J. L. , & Hallett, M. (1996).Sensorimotor gating in boys with Tourette's syndrome and ADHD:Preliminary results.Biological Psychiatry 39,33\u201341.","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(95)00101-8"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3353713"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref188","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0091-3057(01)00523-8"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(99)00047-5"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bremner, J. D. , & Vermetten, E. (2001).Stress and development: Behavioral and biologicalconsequences.Development and Psychopathology 13,473\u2013489.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579401003042"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref208","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00663"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Champagne, F. , & Meaney, M. J. (2001).Like mother, like daughter: Evidence for non-genomic transmission ofparental behavior and stress responsivity.Progress in Brain Research 133,287\u2013302.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(01)33022-4"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heim, C. , Ehlert, U. , & Hellhammer, D. H. (2000).The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology ofstress-related bodily disorders.Psychoneuroendocrinology 25,1\u201335.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4530(99)00035-9"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benediktsson, R. , Lindsay, R. S. , Noble, J. , Seckl, J. R. , & Edwards, C. R. (1993).Glucocorticoid exposure in utero: New model for adulthypertension.Lancet 341(8841),339\u2013341.","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(93)90138-7"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(93)90328-B"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref196","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/00207459808986443"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref191","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-2043-0"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lynch, J. W. , Everson, S. A. , Kaplan, G. A. , Salonen, R. , & Salonen, J. T. (1998).Does low socioeconomic status potentiate the effects of heightenedcardiovascular responses to stress on the progression of carotidatherosclerosis? American Journal of Public Health 88,389\u2013394.","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.88.3.389"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellis, B. J. , Bates, J. E. , Dodge, K. A. , Fergusson, D. , Horwood, J. , Pettit, G. S. , & Woodward, L. (2003).Does early father absence place daughters at special risk for earlysexual activity and teenage pregnancy? Child Development 74,801\u2013821.","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00569"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Champoux, M. , Hwang, L. , Lang, O. , & Levine, S. (2001).Feeding demand conditions and plasma cortisol in socially-housedsquirrel monkey mother\u2013infant dyads.Psychoneuroendocrinology 26,461\u2013477.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4530(01)00006-3"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref090","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001032"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunn, A. J. , & Berridge, C. W. (1990).Physiological and behavioral responses to corticotropin-releasingfactor administration: Is CRF a mediator of anxiety or stressresponses? Brain Research Reviews 15,71\u2013100.","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-0173(90)90012-D"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref203","unstructured":"von Bertalanffy, L. (1968).General system theory: Foundations, development,applications.New York:George Braziller."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyce, W. T. , O'Neill\u2013Wagner, P. , Price, C. S. , Haines, M. , & Suomi, S. J. (1998).Crowding stress and violent injuries among behaviorally inhibitedrhesus macaques.Health Psychology 17,285\u2013289.","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-6133.17.3.285"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davidson, R. J. , Jackson, D. C. , & Kalin, N. H. (2000).Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: Perspectives fromaffective neuroscience.Psychological Bulletin 126,890\u2013909.","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.126.6.890"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref173","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579401003029"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref077","unstructured":"Eysenck, H. J. (1967).The biological basis of personality.Springfield, IL:Charles C. Thomas."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref190","unstructured":"Strelau, J. (1983).Temperament personality activity.New York:Academic Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.33.2.228"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref098","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S095457940100311X"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adler, L. E. , Pang, K. , Gerhardt, G. , & Rose, G. M. (1988).Modulation of the gating of auditory evoked potentials bynorepinephrine: Pharmacological evidence obtained using a selectiveneurotoxin.Biological Psychiatry 24,179\u2013190.","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(88)90273-9"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref194","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.bmb.a011598"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref019","unstructured":"Bernard, C. (1878).Les phenomenes de la vie.Paris:Bailli\u00e8re."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/nlme.1996.0006"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref021","unstructured":"Bloom, F. E. , & Kupfer, D. J. (1995).Psychopharmacology(4th ed.).New York:Raven Press."},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4530(98)00065-1"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calkins, S. D. , Fox, N. A. , & Marshall, T. R. (1996).Behavioral and physiological antecedents of inhibited anduninhibited behavior.Child Development 67,523\u2013540.","DOI":"10.2307\/1131830"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holsboer, F. , Lauer, C. J. , Schreiber, W. , & Krieg, J. C. (1995).Altered hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenocortical regulationin healthy subjects at high familial risk for affective disorders.Neuroendocrinology 62,340\u2013347.","DOI":"10.1159\/000127023"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579400006246"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref207","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00196"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellis, B. J. , McFadyen\u2013Ketchum, S. , Dodge, K. A. , Pettit, G. S. , & Bates, J. E. (1999).Quality of early family relationships and individual differences inthe timing of pubertal maturation in girls: A longitudinal test of anevolutionary model.Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 77,387\u2013401.","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.77.2.387"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doughty, D. , & Rodgers, J. L. (2000).Behavior genetic modeling of menarche in U.S. females. In J. L. Rodgers , D. C. Rowe , & W. B. Miller (Eds.),Genetic influences on human fertility and sexuality: Theoretical andempirical contributions from the biological and behavioralsciences.Boston:Kluwer Academic.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-4467-8_11"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Bellis, M. D. , Baum, A. S. , Birmaher, B. , Keshavan, M. S. , Eccard, C. H. , Boring, A. M. , Jenkins, F. J. , & Ryan, N. D. (1999).A.E. Bennett Research Award. Developmental traumatology. Part I:Biological stress systems.Biological Psychiatry 45,1259\u20131270.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(99)00044-X"},{"key":"S0954579405050145_ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carlson, M. , & Earls, F. (1997).Psychological and neuroendocrinological sequelae of early socialdeprivation in institutionalized children in Romania.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 807,419\u2013428.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1997.tb51936.x"}],"container-title":["Development and Psychopathology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0954579405050145","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T09:25:50Z","timestamp":1776849950000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0954579405050145\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2005,5,12]]},"references-count":216,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2005,6]]}},"alternative-id":["S0954579405050145"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0954579405050145","relation":{},"ISSN":["0954-5794","1469-2198"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0954-5794","type":"print"},{"value":"1469-2198","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2005,5,12]]}}}